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[gentle music]
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- Jessica Lee Stovall:
Hello, good afternoon!
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It is so wonderful to be here.
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My name is Jessica Lee Stovall,
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and I'm an assistant professor
of African American studies
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here at UW-Madison.
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And I'm honored
to be able to introduce
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Dr. Gloria Whiting
this afternoon.
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I'm so inspired
as I looked at the posters
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in the Wisconsin
Historical Society.
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And I'm inspired
by this endeavor
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of uncovering the stories
of these Freedom Seekers.
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In my own book project
on Black teachers,
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I went on physical pilgrimages
to share space with people
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who have thought about
how Freedom Seekers
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like Harriet Tubman
have resisted
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and reimagined spaces through
the Underground Railroad.
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And by being in the physical
spaces as Harriet Tubman walked,
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I was able to better articulate
the overt
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and subversive ways
that Freedom Seekers
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willed Black freedom.
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To reflect on this connection
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between Harriet Tubman
and Black teachers,
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I begin each chapter of my book
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with a vignette
of these pilgrimages
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to illuminate the parallels
between Tubman's decision-making
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around striving for liberation,
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and how Black teachers
have constructed free worlds
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within schools both past
and present.
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Over the course
of a year and a half,
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I hopped on airplanes
to be present
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in the spaces she was:
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her birthplace
in Cambridge, Maryland,
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her grave site
in Auburn, New York,
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and even St. Catharines, Canada,
where she spent eight years
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after the Fugitive Slave Act
passed in 1850.
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The Harriet Tubman pilgrimages
brought me
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experiential knowledge,
and this knowledge
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often was emotional
as I anchored myself
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in sacred historical memory
in the archives.
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So, centering Freedom Seekers
in my own work
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highlights the strategy,
courage, intellect,
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and collective actions
of Black people.
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And centering this work
of Freedom Seekers today
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connects the past
to the present,
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illuminating
the ongoing struggles
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in our quest for liberation.
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Thus you can see
why I'm so inspired.
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And the second
that Dr. Whiting asked me
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to give this introduction,
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I knew that I wanted to be a
part of this incredible project.
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And so, I want to now transition
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to thinking about
Dr. Whiting's work,
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who is the reason why we are all
here gathered today.
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So, Gloria Whiting
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is the E. Gordon Fox
Associate Professor of History
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here at UW-Madison.
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She graduated
from Rice University
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and has a master's degree
and PhD in history
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from Harvard University.
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She has--
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Her work is focused on ordinary
people in early America,
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especially women
and people of color.
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And she has published articles
in leading historical journals
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such as The Journal
of American History,
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the William and Mary Quarterly,
and Slavery and Abolition.
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Her article "Race, Slavery,
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and the Problem of Numbers
in Early New England"
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received the 2021 William Nelson
Cromwell Foundation Prize
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for best article
in American legal history
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by an early career scholar.
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In 2024,
Gloria published her first book,
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titled Belonging:
An Intimate History of Slavery
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and Family
in Early New England.
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This deeply researched
and beautifully written book
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illuminates the lives
of enslaved people
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in 17th and 18th-century
Massachusetts,
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revealing much
that we had not known
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about their families
and communities.
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Belonging has been shortlisted
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for the Frederick Douglass
Book Prize
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and the Stone Book Award,
and has won numerous prizes,
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including the American
Historical Association Prize
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for Best First Book
on American History,
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the Peter J. Gomes
Memorial Prize
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from the Massachusetts
Historical Society,
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the John Winthrop Prize
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from the Colonial Society
of Massachusetts,
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and the Frances Richardson
Keller-Sierra Prize
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from the Western Association
of Women's Historians.
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Gloria has received
several prizes and recognition
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of the quality of her teaching,
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including the University Housing
Honored Instructors Award,
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which she has won four times,
the history department's
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Dorothy and Hsin-Nung Yao
Teaching Award,
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and the Tri Delta sorority's
Outstanding Instructor Award.
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This afternoon,
Gloria will be speaking to us
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about the Freedom Seekers
Project here at UW-Madison.
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And without further ado, we
want to welcome Dr. Whiting.
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[audience applauds]
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- Gloria Whiting: I wanted
to thank Professor Stovall first
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for such a generous
introduction.
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And Professor Stovall plans
to watch this keynote
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when PBS broadcasts it--
Thank you, PBS--
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because at the moment, she has
to run to a prior engagement.
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It's a fundraising event
for a Freedom School
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that she is working to open for
the benefit of Madison youth.
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So, as I begin this presentation
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on people who sought freedom
in the 18th century,
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the fact that Professor Stovall
is organizing a Freedom School
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in 2026
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is an important reminder
that the pursuit of freedom
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for those suffering from racism
and prejudice is a theme
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echoing through the centuries
of American history.
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The story did not end
in the Revolutionary era.
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Before I go any further,
I want to pause
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to thank the supporters
and partners of the symposium
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and the Freedom Seekers Project
at its heart.
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Thank you also
to the undergraduate interns
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who have worked on this project,
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and I want to give a special
thanks to Clarissa Brown,
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Anika Feinsilver,
Sara Ortenzio,
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Mia Pyle, and Rhea Yenubari,
who just presented their work
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at the poster exhibition
in the lobby.
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And a big thanks
to the other members
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of the Freedom Seekers team,
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Antonio Bly, Simon Newman,
and Billy Smith.
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Likewise, the scholars
who make up
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the Freedom Seekers
Advisory Board.
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And I wanted to conclude
by offering my gratitude
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to Isaac Lee and Jesse Gant,
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our fabulous graduate
project assistants.
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It's very humbling to have the,
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really, to be the beneficiary
of the support
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of so many folks
and organizations.
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But now, what I'm here
to do tonight,
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is something pretty simple.
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I'm here to tell you stories.
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Along the way,
I will share about a project
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that I've been working on
for the last five years titled
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"Freedom Seekers:
Stories of Black Liberation
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in the American Revolutionary
Era and Beyond."
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This is a story about slavery,
independence,
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and the American Revolution,
and, of course, about stories.
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I've called this talk
the keynote
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of the Freedom Seekers Symposium
here at UW.
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I've called it
a storytelling lecture.
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And I should be honest with you
at the outset,
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that I have never given
such a lecture.
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I've never even heard
such a lecture.
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So, this is a little bit new,
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but I thought this would be
the perfect format for tonight.
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So, I will tell you
four stories.
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The people at the heart of these
stories have much in common.
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All of African descent,
they were enslaved
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in North America
during the 18th century.
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And at great personal risk,
they fled from their enslavers.
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They were, to use the term
that our project uses,
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Freedom Seekers.
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Of course, as you'll see,
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these people were also quite
different from one another,
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and their bold stands
for freedom
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led to widely divergent
outcomes.
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Some stories you might find
inspiring,
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others heartbreaking.
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All, I expect, will make you
uncomfortable,
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at least at points.
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But that is something
that good history
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and good storytelling
are wont to do.
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So, I will open our time today
with a story about Pompey Fleet.
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It is a story
that traces its origins
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to a fragment in the archive,
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a newspaper advertisement
two paragraphs long.
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I started
with this advertisement,
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which describes a man
who, in Boston in 1774,
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broke out of jail.
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The jail here is called
the Bridewell.
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From this advertisement,
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I worked to build
the story of a life.
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And I'm going to share with you
that story.
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When Pompey Fleet was born
in the year 1745,
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his mother, Venus,
could scarcely have imagined
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the course that her child
would chart in life.
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Pompey would grow up
to escape slavery.
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And then,
thanks to his British allegiance
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in the American Revolution,
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to escape North America
altogether.
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Ultimately, Pompey
would return to the continent
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from which his ancestors
hailed: Africa.
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Along the way, he would become
an accomplished craftsman.
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But this part, Venus
might have expected.
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Pompey's father, a man who
went by the name Peter Fleet,
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was a gifted woodcut artist
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who helped run the printing
enterprise of Thomas Fleet,
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the man who held the family
in bondage.
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Peter would train Pompey
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and his younger brother, Caesar,
in a bustling shop
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located just steps
from Boston's statehouse.
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The boys were,
in the words of one onlooker,
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brought up to "work at press
and case."
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That is, they were brought up
to use printing equipment.
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And they became highly capable
as print hands.
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So capable, in fact,
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that when their father
and enslaver died
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one after another,
in midsummer 1758,
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the shop was able to chug along
without interruption.
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Pompey was just 13 at the time,
Caesar 10.
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Pompey came of age
in that print shop.
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Stooped and ink-smeared,
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he worked from the gray of dawn
to evening candlelight,
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setting type, inking it,
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and pressing sheets of paper
onto it.
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Days bled into each other,
one to the next,
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like the ink on a page,
but not Mondays.
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Tasked with delivering
the past week's news
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to "all the readers in town,"
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Pompey experienced on Mondays
the freedom of the streets
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rather than the confinement
of the shop.
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The young printer traversed
every inch of Boston
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with his papers in tow,
making his way
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from Captain Greenough's
shipyard in the town's north end
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to Windmill Point
on the town's southern tip.
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Not surprisingly,
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Pompey became acquainted
with Bostonians of all sorts.
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As his enslavers put it,
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"The man came to be well known
around town."
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Taking advantage
of his Monday independence,
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Pompey began to cultivate
a relationship
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with a woman named Chloe Short.
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Over time, their relationship
became serious.
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In 1773, 15 years
after his father's passing,
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Pompey, who was still enslaved,
and Chloe, who was free,
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filed with Boston's town clerk
an intention to marry.
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But an actual marriage
did not follow the intention.
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At least, there's no record
that one did.
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Pompey's enslavers,
Thomas's sons,
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appear to have thought
little of Chloe.
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Did they try to stand
in the way of the union?
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Possibly.
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Something, at any rate,
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brought Pompey into intense
conflict with the Fleets
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around the time his relationship
with Chloe was blossoming,
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and his enslavers responded
harshly.
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They committed the man
to Boston's Bridewell,
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a prison-like institution
in town.
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Pompey, though,
was not so easily subdued.
247
00:13:09,690 --> 00:13:11,658
He managed to escape
from the Bridewell,
248
00:13:11,725 --> 00:13:14,161
and his enslavers, incensed,
249
00:13:14,228 --> 00:13:17,064
advertised for him
in their newspaper.
250
00:13:17,130 --> 00:13:20,634
"Lately broke out
of the Bridewell," they wrote,
251
00:13:20,701 --> 00:13:23,537
"a sturdy, well-set
Negro Fellow,
252
00:13:23,604 --> 00:13:25,572
about 27 years of Age,
253
00:13:25,639 --> 00:13:29,776
well known in Town
by the Name of Pomp Fleet."
254
00:13:30,344 --> 00:13:33,814
Even though Pompey
was "well known,"
255
00:13:34,481 --> 00:13:36,717
the printers described him
carefully
256
00:13:36,783 --> 00:13:39,520
in an effort to ensure
his capture.
257
00:13:39,586 --> 00:13:43,357
"Pompey stood
about 5 feet 6 inches high,
258
00:13:43,423 --> 00:13:45,392
"and he had had the smallpox,
259
00:13:45,459 --> 00:13:48,695
"the marks of which appear
very distinct in his face,
260
00:13:48,762 --> 00:13:54,334
being much darker than the other
parts of his skin," they wrote.
261
00:13:54,401 --> 00:13:56,770
Pompey was also well dressed.
262
00:13:56,837 --> 00:14:00,707
Not only did he possess
"white breeches and stockings,"
263
00:14:00,774 --> 00:14:02,342
according to the advertisement,
264
00:14:02,409 --> 00:14:04,645
but he had a black set
of the same,
265
00:14:04,711 --> 00:14:08,949
and he carried with him
a "good dark brown coat."
266
00:14:10,484 --> 00:14:13,253
The printers' physical
description of Pompey
267
00:14:13,320 --> 00:14:16,990
is most revealing, though,
in the evidence it provides
268
00:14:17,057 --> 00:14:20,894
of the man's pride
and sense of self-importance.
269
00:14:20,961 --> 00:14:22,896
Pompey's enslavers reported
270
00:14:22,963 --> 00:14:28,435
that he "often has his Wool
dressed in the Macaroni Taste."
271
00:14:29,336 --> 00:14:33,874
Some Black men in the 18th
century combed their hair up,
272
00:14:33,941 --> 00:14:36,977
bunching it high
over their forehead.
273
00:14:37,044 --> 00:14:40,080
And Pompey fused
this inclination
274
00:14:40,147 --> 00:14:42,783
with an of-the-moment trend.
275
00:14:42,850 --> 00:14:47,888
The Macaroni style emerged
in North America in the 1770s,
276
00:14:47,955 --> 00:14:51,592
when wealthy English colonists
began to imitate
277
00:14:51,658 --> 00:14:55,195
the exaggerated pompadours
of Italians,
278
00:14:55,262 --> 00:15:00,300
building the foretop
of their toupees ever higher.
279
00:15:00,367 --> 00:15:03,337
Pompey must have been
highly fashion-conscious
280
00:15:03,403 --> 00:15:05,639
to incorporate the practice
so speedily
281
00:15:05,706 --> 00:15:08,842
and to execute it
with such flair.
282
00:15:09,576 --> 00:15:11,778
Perhaps the frustrated printers
283
00:15:11,845 --> 00:15:14,615
shortened Pompey's name
to "Pomp"
284
00:15:14,681 --> 00:15:19,019
in their account of his escape
in order to poke fun of the man,
285
00:15:19,086 --> 00:15:20,320
his new style,
286
00:15:20,387 --> 00:15:23,790
and the spectacle of fashion
that he had become.
287
00:15:23,857 --> 00:15:25,225
No matter.
288
00:15:25,292 --> 00:15:29,897
Pompey was doubtless growing
comfortable with their censure.
289
00:15:29,963 --> 00:15:33,000
He had chosen a partner
they scorned.
290
00:15:33,066 --> 00:15:37,838
They referred to her as a "wench
whom he calls his wife."
291
00:15:37,905 --> 00:15:39,740
Then he had committed
an infraction
292
00:15:39,806 --> 00:15:42,609
they deemed worthy
of incarceration.
293
00:15:42,676 --> 00:15:45,345
And finally, he had tested
their patience
294
00:15:45,412 --> 00:15:51,084
and displayed his own cunning by
breaking out of the Bridewell.
295
00:15:51,151 --> 00:15:55,088
Pompey's defiance, though,
had only begun.
296
00:15:56,190 --> 00:15:58,592
If the Fleets' repossessed
the audacious man
297
00:15:58,659 --> 00:16:02,362
after his 1774 escape,
it was not for long.
298
00:16:02,429 --> 00:16:04,398
Pompey joined the British forces
299
00:16:04,464 --> 00:16:07,234
at the outbreak
of the Revolutionary War,
300
00:16:07,301 --> 00:16:11,972
and he evacuated Boston
with them in March of 1776.
301
00:16:13,407 --> 00:16:16,877
Together, they went
to New York City,
302
00:16:18,145 --> 00:16:22,316
which was, at this point,
a bastion of British power
303
00:16:22,382 --> 00:16:24,718
and Royalist sentiment.
304
00:16:24,785 --> 00:16:28,655
In New York, Pompey printed
against the American cause
305
00:16:28,722 --> 00:16:29,890
under the supervision
306
00:16:29,957 --> 00:16:34,094
of Loyalist pressman
Alexander Robertson.
307
00:16:34,761 --> 00:16:40,734
In the end, Pompey's British
allegiance won him his liberty.
308
00:16:40,801 --> 00:16:43,370
When the British left New York
in 1783,
309
00:16:43,437 --> 00:16:46,507
they brought with them
some 3,000 Black people,
310
00:16:46,573 --> 00:16:48,275
most of whom, like Pompey,
311
00:16:48,342 --> 00:16:52,546
had deserted rebellious
American enslavers
312
00:16:52,613 --> 00:16:55,249
to join the British ranks.
313
00:16:55,315 --> 00:16:58,252
Pompey sailed
alongside Alexander
314
00:16:58,318 --> 00:17:03,857
to Port Roseway, Nova Scotia,
on a ship with Black Loyalists
315
00:17:03,924 --> 00:17:08,595
from plantations as far
as Georgia and South Carolina.
316
00:17:10,364 --> 00:17:13,367
Pompey continued his work
as a printer in Nova Scotia.
317
00:17:13,433 --> 00:17:17,337
But his employer died
just a year after their arrival,
318
00:17:17,404 --> 00:17:20,073
and eventually,
tired of low wages
319
00:17:20,140 --> 00:17:22,476
and discriminatory legislation,
320
00:17:22,543 --> 00:17:25,879
Pompey made preparations
to leave.
321
00:17:26,480 --> 00:17:29,950
In 1792,
he took to the sea once again,
322
00:17:32,019 --> 00:17:35,255
this time headed
for Sierra Leone,
323
00:17:35,822 --> 00:17:41,828
a West African colony founded in
large part by Black Loyalists.
324
00:17:41,895 --> 00:17:45,232
But Pompey did not go
empty-handed.
325
00:17:46,066 --> 00:17:49,203
He must have found room
on the ship
326
00:17:49,703 --> 00:17:53,707
for the cumbersome equipment
of a printer,
327
00:17:54,408 --> 00:17:57,177
for soon
after his arrival,
328
00:17:57,244 --> 00:18:02,916
Sierra Leone boasted a press
that was in constant operation.
329
00:18:05,185 --> 00:18:07,154
Transporting these tools
330
00:18:07,221 --> 00:18:10,891
and the knowledge required
to make good use of them
331
00:18:10,958 --> 00:18:13,827
was truly an accomplishment.
332
00:18:14,862 --> 00:18:19,233
This was the first
printing press in Africa
333
00:18:19,299 --> 00:18:21,869
south of the Sahara Desert.
334
00:18:23,170 --> 00:18:25,372
Pompey had taken his trade
335
00:18:25,439 --> 00:18:30,043
from Boston to New York,
to Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone,
336
00:18:30,110 --> 00:18:33,247
printing from slavery to freedom
337
00:18:34,047 --> 00:18:37,551
in a world upturned
by revolution.
338
00:18:38,819 --> 00:18:41,154
As Pompey's story shows,
339
00:18:42,222 --> 00:18:46,393
the American Revolution
offered opportunities
340
00:18:46,460 --> 00:18:49,429
to people who sought
to escape slavery.
341
00:18:49,496 --> 00:18:51,265
By embracing the British cause,
342
00:18:51,331 --> 00:18:53,467
Pompey managed
to put thousands of miles
343
00:18:53,534 --> 00:18:57,437
between himself
and his erstwhile enslavers.
344
00:18:57,504 --> 00:19:00,307
Of course,
Pompey's story is unusual
345
00:19:00,374 --> 00:19:02,609
due to the man's literacy,
346
00:19:02,676 --> 00:19:06,780
his remarkable skill
at printing, and frankly,
347
00:19:06,847 --> 00:19:12,085
the extent to which his life
can today be reconstructed.
348
00:19:12,553 --> 00:19:15,289
However,
Pompey's decision to abscond
349
00:19:15,355 --> 00:19:18,792
during the chaos of the
American War for Independence
350
00:19:18,859 --> 00:19:20,527
was not unusual.
351
00:19:22,029 --> 00:19:24,331
Estimates vary,
but some scholars believe
352
00:19:24,398 --> 00:19:27,801
that fully a fifth
of enslaved people
353
00:19:27,868 --> 00:19:30,671
in British colonies
in North America
354
00:19:30,737 --> 00:19:35,309
attempted to escape bondage
during the revolution.
355
00:19:35,375 --> 00:19:40,480
That is, Freedom Seekers fled
their enslavers' estates
356
00:19:40,547 --> 00:19:42,683
in very large numbers.
357
00:19:43,951 --> 00:19:47,754
As the groundbreaking
Black historian Benjamin Quarles
358
00:19:47,821 --> 00:19:50,390
argued nearly 50 years ago,
359
00:19:50,757 --> 00:19:54,428
"The Revolutionary War
can be termed
360
00:19:54,494 --> 00:19:57,898
"a Black Declaration
of Independence
361
00:19:57,965 --> 00:20:00,167
"in the sense that it spurred
Black Americans
362
00:20:00,234 --> 00:20:03,237
to seek freedom and equality."
363
00:20:03,303 --> 00:20:05,672
And perhaps I should pause here
to note
364
00:20:05,739 --> 00:20:08,709
that Quarles earned his PhD
from UW-Madison
365
00:20:08,775 --> 00:20:10,444
in the year 1940,
366
00:20:11,645 --> 00:20:14,581
which means there is
a long history of work
367
00:20:14,648 --> 00:20:18,886
on slavery and the revolution
on this campus.
368
00:20:19,753 --> 00:20:21,321
Quarles was right
369
00:20:21,388 --> 00:20:24,758
about the revolution spurring
Black Americans to seek liberty.
370
00:20:24,825 --> 00:20:26,627
But we need to be careful.
371
00:20:26,693 --> 00:20:29,162
The revolution
did not inaugurate
372
00:20:29,229 --> 00:20:33,133
Black American struggles
against slavery.
373
00:20:33,200 --> 00:20:36,870
The desire for freedom
on the part of the enslaved
374
00:20:36,937 --> 00:20:40,240
did not originate
during this era.
375
00:20:40,307 --> 00:20:44,077
Many in bondage were willing
to take great risks
376
00:20:44,144 --> 00:20:45,712
to secure their liberty
377
00:20:45,779 --> 00:20:50,317
long before the American War
for Independence.
378
00:20:50,384 --> 00:20:54,388
Another story can help us
appreciate this.
379
00:20:55,789 --> 00:20:57,457
"Penelope."
380
00:20:59,226 --> 00:21:02,896
Did Penelope's heart pound
as she took shelter
381
00:21:02,963 --> 00:21:06,800
in the forest
on the outskirts of town?
382
00:21:06,867 --> 00:21:12,439
Did she gasp for air as she tore
through the nearby farmland?
383
00:21:13,073 --> 00:21:16,944
Or did her feet make
nary a patter on the town dock
384
00:21:17,010 --> 00:21:21,882
as she crept under cover
of darkness to a waiting vessel?
385
00:21:23,317 --> 00:21:27,054
No one knows how Penelope
went about making her escape
386
00:21:27,120 --> 00:21:28,622
from Nathanael Cary,
387
00:21:28,689 --> 00:21:31,458
the Charlestown sea captain
who enslaved her.
388
00:21:31,525 --> 00:21:34,161
But some sleuthing can help us
understand certain aspects
389
00:21:34,228 --> 00:21:36,230
of Penelope's flight.
390
00:21:36,296 --> 00:21:38,065
Clues from the archive
shed light
391
00:21:38,131 --> 00:21:42,069
on what prompted Penelope to run
when she did,
392
00:21:42,135 --> 00:21:45,372
why the woman felt
particularly justified
393
00:21:45,439 --> 00:21:47,374
in seizing her freedom,
394
00:21:47,441 --> 00:21:51,411
and what resulted
from her stand for liberty.
395
00:21:52,679 --> 00:21:56,149
Penelope's story, first,
is a story--
396
00:21:56,216 --> 00:21:59,453
to begin with,
is a story of firsts.
397
00:21:59,520 --> 00:22:02,256
The woman was likely brought
to Massachusetts
398
00:22:02,322 --> 00:22:07,094
on the first ship to deliver
a sizable cargo of Africans
399
00:22:07,160 --> 00:22:08,862
to the colony.
400
00:22:08,929 --> 00:22:12,499
And when she fled years later,
in 1704,
401
00:22:13,033 --> 00:22:17,604
the notice her enslaver posted
in attempt to reclaim her
402
00:22:17,671 --> 00:22:20,908
was the first newspaper
advertisement printed
403
00:22:20,974 --> 00:22:24,545
in England's American colonies
for the purpose
404
00:22:24,611 --> 00:22:29,249
of capturing a bondsperson
of African descent--
405
00:22:29,316 --> 00:22:33,654
at least the earliest such
advertisement that survives.
406
00:22:33,720 --> 00:22:36,757
That means that it was
Penelope's escape
407
00:22:36,823 --> 00:22:39,626
that prompted her enslaver
to post a notice
408
00:22:39,693 --> 00:22:43,897
that inaugurated a genre
in the Americas.
409
00:22:43,964 --> 00:22:47,935
Tens of thousands
of like advertisements
410
00:22:48,001 --> 00:22:52,005
would follow the one
describing Penelope.
411
00:22:53,040 --> 00:22:56,143
These advertisements announced
far and wide
412
00:22:56,210 --> 00:22:57,978
the flight of people
from slavery,
413
00:22:58,045 --> 00:23:01,448
but only rarely is it possible
to learn what resulted
414
00:23:01,515 --> 00:23:04,785
from bondspeople's brave bids
for freedom.
415
00:23:04,852 --> 00:23:07,354
It was not typical, after all,
416
00:23:07,421 --> 00:23:09,857
for enslavers to follow up
in print
417
00:23:09,923 --> 00:23:15,662
by celebrating captures
or deploring fruitless searches.
418
00:23:15,729 --> 00:23:18,632
In Penelope's case, however,
419
00:23:18,699 --> 00:23:22,503
other sources help us
fill out the story.
420
00:23:23,303 --> 00:23:25,305
Records filed by the local court
421
00:23:25,372 --> 00:23:29,610
show that Nathanael's
advertisement was successful.
422
00:23:29,676 --> 00:23:31,678
Penelope was caught.
423
00:23:32,613 --> 00:23:37,217
But they also show
that the woman was resolute
424
00:23:37,284 --> 00:23:40,854
in her determination
to gain liberty.
425
00:23:40,921 --> 00:23:42,823
In December of 1705,
426
00:23:43,323 --> 00:23:46,860
a year and a half after she had
first sought to free herself
427
00:23:46,927 --> 00:23:49,263
from her enslaver's clutches,
428
00:23:49,329 --> 00:23:53,233
Penelope took a second stand
for freedom.
429
00:23:53,901 --> 00:23:56,069
She marched to the courthouse
430
00:23:56,136 --> 00:23:59,640
and lodged a complaint
against her enslaver
431
00:23:59,706 --> 00:24:02,276
for wrongly enslaving her.
432
00:24:04,545 --> 00:24:07,514
In the process
of suing Nathanael,
433
00:24:07,581 --> 00:24:09,550
Penelope told her story,
434
00:24:09,616 --> 00:24:12,519
or at least she told parts
of it.
435
00:24:13,253 --> 00:24:16,390
Penelope's story was preserved
on scraps of paper
436
00:24:16,456 --> 00:24:19,459
stuffed into tin boxes,
stored for generations
437
00:24:19,526 --> 00:24:21,662
in the local courthouse.
438
00:24:21,728 --> 00:24:25,499
On those crumbling fragments,
if we listen carefully,
439
00:24:25,566 --> 00:24:29,837
we can hear echoes
from as far back as 1691,
440
00:24:29,903 --> 00:24:32,773
when the woman
was in her early 20s.
441
00:24:32,840 --> 00:24:34,608
Penelope, by this time,
442
00:24:34,675 --> 00:24:38,078
had developed an intimate
relationship with a free man
443
00:24:38,145 --> 00:24:41,181
of African descent
named Thomas Sungo,
444
00:24:41,248 --> 00:24:46,587
who was determined both to marry
her and to liberate her.
445
00:24:46,653 --> 00:24:49,356
Thomas had allies in this quest.
446
00:24:49,423 --> 00:24:53,560
A white neighbor later recalled
going to Nathanael's house
447
00:24:53,627 --> 00:24:59,032
to "assist" Thomas in a contract
he was making with Nathanael
448
00:24:59,099 --> 00:25:03,437
"concerning his Negro woman
named Penelope."
449
00:25:04,004 --> 00:25:06,740
Thomas agreed in this contract
450
00:25:06,807 --> 00:25:11,078
to apprentice himself
to Nathanael for four years.
451
00:25:11,144 --> 00:25:16,683
Nathanael, in turn, would allow
Thomas to marry Penelope,
452
00:25:16,750 --> 00:25:22,222
and he would set the woman free
at the end of Thomas's term.
453
00:25:23,790 --> 00:25:26,260
Any children Penelope bore
454
00:25:26,326 --> 00:25:29,897
during the four years
of the contract
455
00:25:29,963 --> 00:25:34,268
would be required to labor
for Nathanael for a time.
456
00:25:34,334 --> 00:25:36,937
And that time is actually
not specified
457
00:25:37,004 --> 00:25:39,640
in the records that exist.
458
00:25:39,706 --> 00:25:41,708
But it is clear in those records
459
00:25:41,775 --> 00:25:46,146
that those children would not
become chattel slaves.
460
00:25:46,213 --> 00:25:48,549
So, the agreement had
some benefits,
461
00:25:48,615 --> 00:25:50,784
but it also had downsides.
462
00:25:50,851 --> 00:25:54,521
For instance,
as Thomas's neighbor put it,
463
00:25:54,588 --> 00:25:57,858
Thomas "would have no advantage
464
00:25:57,925 --> 00:26:00,827
"with respect to the freedom
of his intended wife
465
00:26:00,894 --> 00:26:04,932
if he should serve three years
and three-quarters."
466
00:26:04,998 --> 00:26:07,801
When Thomas pointed this out
to Nathanael, though,
467
00:26:07,868 --> 00:26:11,138
the enslaver stated that
he was not willing to consider
468
00:26:11,205 --> 00:26:12,873
any other terms.
469
00:26:13,273 --> 00:26:16,043
Persuaded that there was
no alternative,
470
00:26:16,109 --> 00:26:20,314
Thomas complied
with Nathanael's demands.
471
00:26:20,380 --> 00:26:24,818
And so, Thomas relinquished
his independence,
472
00:26:24,885 --> 00:26:29,356
moved into Nathanael's household
as a bound laborer,
473
00:26:29,423 --> 00:26:31,725
and married Penelope.
474
00:26:31,792 --> 00:26:35,062
This was an extraordinary stroke
of good fortune
475
00:26:35,128 --> 00:26:36,230
for the young woman.
476
00:26:36,296 --> 00:26:37,865
As a result of the contract,
477
00:26:37,931 --> 00:26:40,033
Penelope could look to a future
in which
478
00:26:40,100 --> 00:26:44,938
she and her husband would be
unencumbered by enslavers
479
00:26:45,005 --> 00:26:48,575
and able to raise children
in liberty.
480
00:26:50,077 --> 00:26:52,212
But then, Thomas died.
481
00:26:56,416 --> 00:26:59,453
Did Thomas die
three and three-quarters years
482
00:26:59,520 --> 00:27:01,655
into his contract
with Nathanael,
483
00:27:01,722 --> 00:27:04,725
as he and his neighbor
had feared?
484
00:27:04,791 --> 00:27:07,094
No record notes the time
of Thomas's passing,
485
00:27:07,160 --> 00:27:11,365
but we know that he was gone
before Penelope sued for freedom
486
00:27:11,431 --> 00:27:15,636
in 1705, because the court
referred to the woman
487
00:27:15,702 --> 00:27:20,174
as "the widow of Thomas Sungo
of Charlestowne."
488
00:27:21,074 --> 00:27:24,845
We also know that Penelope
declared herself ready to prove
489
00:27:24,912 --> 00:27:28,749
that the conditions of her
freedom were complied with.
490
00:27:28,815 --> 00:27:33,520
This suggests that Thomas indeed
served out his four years.
491
00:27:33,587 --> 00:27:37,591
Significantly, Nathanael
did not dispute
492
00:27:38,292 --> 00:27:41,094
Penelope's account in court.
493
00:27:41,562 --> 00:27:44,932
But the story does not quite
add up.
494
00:27:44,998 --> 00:27:48,168
If Thomas had labored
for the required four years,
495
00:27:48,235 --> 00:27:49,670
Penelope should have been freed
496
00:27:49,736 --> 00:27:54,608
when those four years came
to a close back in 1695.
497
00:27:54,675 --> 00:27:58,612
Why would she have waited
until 1704 to leave?
498
00:27:59,813 --> 00:28:03,817
A fragment in the archives
might provide the answer.
499
00:28:03,884 --> 00:28:08,889
In April of 1704, a "Negro
child" bound by a man named--
500
00:28:10,357 --> 00:28:14,161
A man identified as Mr. Cary
passed away.
501
00:28:15,329 --> 00:28:18,732
The child's name is not noted
in the record,
502
00:28:18,799 --> 00:28:20,801
nor is the child's parentage.
503
00:28:20,868 --> 00:28:23,537
But both the April 1704 death
504
00:28:24,404 --> 00:28:28,108
and the obligation to a man
with Nathanael's last name
505
00:28:28,175 --> 00:28:30,444
fit Penelope's story.
506
00:28:30,511 --> 00:28:32,613
Penelope did not desert
Nathanael's household
507
00:28:32,679 --> 00:28:34,348
until June 1704,
508
00:28:35,082 --> 00:28:40,554
two months after the child
claimed by Mr. Cary passed away.
509
00:28:41,555 --> 00:28:45,325
Perhaps the woman chose to labor
in Nathanael's household
510
00:28:45,392 --> 00:28:49,396
while her offspring came of age
in bondage,
511
00:28:50,197 --> 00:28:53,567
trading her freedom
for proximity
512
00:28:53,634 --> 00:28:56,103
to the one she cared about,
513
00:28:56,537 --> 00:29:01,508
just as her husband had done
for her years before.
514
00:29:02,543 --> 00:29:05,779
Whatever Penelope's motivation
for delaying her departure
515
00:29:05,846 --> 00:29:07,281
from Nathanael's household,
516
00:29:07,347 --> 00:29:10,184
by 1705, the woman was arguing
for her freedom
517
00:29:10,250 --> 00:29:13,120
before a jury of her townsmen.
518
00:29:13,187 --> 00:29:16,089
This she did
with impressive success.
519
00:29:16,156 --> 00:29:20,427
The woman's neighbors, some of
whom were enslavers themselves,
520
00:29:20,494 --> 00:29:25,399
found that Penelope "is
and ought to be a free woman."
521
00:29:27,434 --> 00:29:30,237
Nathanael, as the losing party,
522
00:29:30,304 --> 00:29:34,341
was required to cover
Penelope's legal costs.
523
00:29:34,408 --> 00:29:38,312
It was a sweet victory,
but a fleeting one.
524
00:29:39,980 --> 00:29:43,717
Nathanael did not accept
the ruling.
525
00:29:43,784 --> 00:29:46,019
He appealed to the colony's
high court,
526
00:29:46,086 --> 00:29:49,223
which decreed that
Penelope's suit had been filed
527
00:29:49,289 --> 00:29:51,625
in the wrong lower court.
528
00:29:52,693 --> 00:29:56,163
The original decision
was reversed.
529
00:29:58,599 --> 00:30:01,468
This devastating reversal
provides us
530
00:30:01,535 --> 00:30:05,372
with our final glimpse
of Penelope's life.
531
00:30:05,439 --> 00:30:07,241
What happened next?
532
00:30:07,307 --> 00:30:10,611
Did Penelope run again
when the courts failed her?
533
00:30:10,677 --> 00:30:13,247
Did she manage to work out
an arrangement
534
00:30:13,313 --> 00:30:16,216
with her hardheaded enslaver?
535
00:30:17,251 --> 00:30:19,820
Or did she live out her life,
536
00:30:20,821 --> 00:30:24,958
widowed and perhaps childless,
in bondage?
537
00:30:27,895 --> 00:30:30,030
The records do not say.
538
00:30:32,299 --> 00:30:33,700
Penelope's story is one
539
00:30:33,767 --> 00:30:38,138
of nearly 100 stories featured
on the Freedom Seekers website,
540
00:30:38,205 --> 00:30:40,741
and our collection of stories
is rapidly growing.
541
00:30:40,807 --> 00:30:42,676
These stories are really...
542
00:30:42,743 --> 00:30:44,178
We call them stories,
543
00:30:44,244 --> 00:30:47,581
but they're really short
and engaging histories of people
544
00:30:47,648 --> 00:30:51,185
who seized their freedom
during the Revolutionary era
545
00:30:51,251 --> 00:30:54,054
and the time before and after.
546
00:30:54,888 --> 00:30:57,758
These stories display
tremendous diversity.
547
00:30:57,824 --> 00:30:59,159
Just consider, for instance,
548
00:30:59,226 --> 00:31:03,530
how starkly Penelope's story
diverges from Pompey Fleets'.
549
00:31:03,597 --> 00:31:06,433
However, they all
have the same starting point:
550
00:31:06,500 --> 00:31:09,903
the newspaper advertisements
posted by enslavers
551
00:31:09,970 --> 00:31:12,840
that describe those
who fled bondage
552
00:31:12,906 --> 00:31:17,211
and offered rewards
for their reenslavement.
553
00:31:18,512 --> 00:31:20,547
These advertisements,
554
00:31:20,614 --> 00:31:24,017
which exist in the archives
in tens of thousands,
555
00:31:24,084 --> 00:31:27,221
are troubling
historical sources,
556
00:31:27,287 --> 00:31:30,657
as they reduce
fully-formed lives
557
00:31:30,724 --> 00:31:35,963
to a few dozen words formulated
by aggrieved enslavers.
558
00:31:36,630 --> 00:31:38,565
They never contain
as much information
559
00:31:38,632 --> 00:31:40,501
as researchers might wish,
560
00:31:40,567 --> 00:31:45,138
and their tone
is invariably disrespectful.
561
00:31:45,205 --> 00:31:46,974
But the Freedom Seekers Project
works
562
00:31:47,040 --> 00:31:50,043
to transcend the limitations
of these advertisements.
563
00:31:50,110 --> 00:31:53,780
Importantly, Freedom Seekers
is the first project
564
00:31:53,847 --> 00:31:55,582
to create a collection
of the stories
565
00:31:55,649 --> 00:31:58,352
behind runaway advertisements,
566
00:31:58,418 --> 00:32:02,890
rather than just a collection of
the advertisements themselves.
567
00:32:02,956 --> 00:32:05,626
And the project shows
that deep archival research
568
00:32:05,692 --> 00:32:07,494
can contextualize and flesh out
569
00:32:07,561 --> 00:32:10,163
these difficult
historical sources.
570
00:32:10,230 --> 00:32:12,132
For instance, my story of Pompey
571
00:32:12,199 --> 00:32:14,601
used over 20
supplemental sources
572
00:32:14,668 --> 00:32:17,304
to build
on that original advertisement.
573
00:32:17,371 --> 00:32:20,941
And my story of Penelope used
nearly that many.
574
00:32:21,008 --> 00:32:22,709
Such archival work,
575
00:32:22,776 --> 00:32:26,914
together with measured acts
of historical imagination,
576
00:32:26,980 --> 00:32:30,150
can provide new insight
into the experiences of those
577
00:32:30,217 --> 00:32:34,888
who had the courage to challenge
both their own enslavement
578
00:32:34,955 --> 00:32:38,091
and the system of slavery
itself.
579
00:32:40,327 --> 00:32:41,995
"Letitia."
580
00:32:43,030 --> 00:32:45,832
The days were shortening in 1733
581
00:32:45,899 --> 00:32:50,237
and the chill of winter
tightening its grip on Boston
582
00:32:50,304 --> 00:32:53,941
when Letitia found a visitor
on the stoop.
583
00:32:54,007 --> 00:32:57,277
Letitia at the time
might have been seven,
584
00:32:57,344 --> 00:32:58,812
the age at which children
585
00:32:58,879 --> 00:33:01,815
began to be considered useful
in New England.
586
00:33:01,882 --> 00:33:05,552
Or perhaps she was
a bit older, ten or so.
587
00:33:06,186 --> 00:33:08,155
A girl of African ancestry,
588
00:33:08,222 --> 00:33:10,891
she was enslaved
by James Gordon,
589
00:33:10,958 --> 00:33:13,527
a wealthy merchant in town.
590
00:33:13,994 --> 00:33:19,032
As for the visitor at the door,
she was a free white woman,
591
00:33:19,099 --> 00:33:21,902
a neighbor named Mary Butler.
592
00:33:23,170 --> 00:33:27,508
Mary showed up that winter
not once, not twice,
593
00:33:28,108 --> 00:33:29,910
but several times.
594
00:33:31,044 --> 00:33:35,082
And each time, she brought
with her the same request.
595
00:33:35,148 --> 00:33:38,685
The wife of a saddler
named Samuel Butler
596
00:33:38,752 --> 00:33:43,657
and a new mother of twins,
Mary came for Letitia.
597
00:33:43,724 --> 00:33:46,260
Again and again,
she asked James's wife
598
00:33:46,326 --> 00:33:51,465
to "let her have her Negro girl,
Letitia," to serve her.
599
00:33:53,133 --> 00:33:55,669
Letitia likely began to dread
600
00:33:55,736 --> 00:33:59,506
hearing the women parlay
over her future by the hearth.
601
00:33:59,573 --> 00:34:01,708
But the Gordons, for their part,
602
00:34:01,775 --> 00:34:04,978
persistently denied
Mary's requests.
603
00:34:05,045 --> 00:34:08,515
Perhaps Letitia's labor
was needed in their household.
604
00:34:08,582 --> 00:34:10,517
Or maybe Letitia made it clear
to her enslaver
605
00:34:10,584 --> 00:34:13,053
that she did not wish to go.
606
00:34:13,687 --> 00:34:15,489
Months passed.
607
00:34:15,556 --> 00:34:19,026
The snow melted,
the ground thawed,
608
00:34:19,092 --> 00:34:21,361
and Mrs. Gordon's
kitchen garden,
609
00:34:21,428 --> 00:34:23,997
likely tended by Letitia,
610
00:34:24,064 --> 00:34:28,502
began to bear the season's
first peas and lettuces.
611
00:34:28,569 --> 00:34:31,705
Only then
did the Gordons relent.
612
00:34:32,673 --> 00:34:38,579
In June of 1734, Letitia bade
farewell to Prince and Affey,
613
00:34:38,645 --> 00:34:40,480
companions of African descent,
614
00:34:40,547 --> 00:34:43,784
who worked alongside her
in the Gordon home,
615
00:34:43,851 --> 00:34:46,987
and she went to serve
the Butlers.
616
00:34:47,521 --> 00:34:49,556
Within two years, however,
Letitia was back,
617
00:34:49,623 --> 00:34:51,758
as the Gordons and the Butlers
could not agree
618
00:34:51,825 --> 00:34:55,329
on how much money
ought to be paid for her labor.
619
00:34:55,395 --> 00:34:58,565
Then, a year and a half
after that,
620
00:34:58,632 --> 00:35:01,535
James sent Letitia away again,
621
00:35:01,969 --> 00:35:06,940
this time, according to
the bill of sale, for good.
622
00:35:08,575 --> 00:35:13,814
Letitia was sold to a Boston
shopkeeper named John Wass.
623
00:35:14,548 --> 00:35:17,150
She was still referred to
as a girl
624
00:35:17,217 --> 00:35:20,120
in the document
that deeded her to John.
625
00:35:20,187 --> 00:35:21,655
But now, she was an older one,
626
00:35:21,722 --> 00:35:25,292
perhaps between 12
and 15 years of age,
627
00:35:25,826 --> 00:35:27,661
and she had become valuable
628
00:35:27,728 --> 00:35:31,398
as values were reckoned
in slave-trading societies.
629
00:35:31,465 --> 00:35:35,669
James pocketed £120
from the transaction,
630
00:35:35,736 --> 00:35:37,237
a sum that exceeded
631
00:35:37,304 --> 00:35:41,975
the average price paid
for grown men in the region.
632
00:35:43,510 --> 00:35:47,214
Was Letitia especially
physically attractive?
633
00:35:47,281 --> 00:35:49,516
Unusually hardworking?
634
00:35:49,583 --> 00:35:54,021
Literate and capable
of helping to run John's shop?
635
00:35:54,087 --> 00:35:57,257
Perhaps she had developed a
robust suite of domestic skills
636
00:35:57,324 --> 00:35:59,359
while working
for the saddler's wife.
637
00:35:59,426 --> 00:36:02,963
Whatever the reason,
John was willing to pay dearly
638
00:36:03,030 --> 00:36:06,266
to bring Letitia
to his household.
639
00:36:07,501 --> 00:36:09,203
John's household, however,
640
00:36:09,269 --> 00:36:13,373
was not one
in which Letitia wished to live.
641
00:36:14,775 --> 00:36:17,344
Eventually, Letitia left.
642
00:36:19,413 --> 00:36:21,915
Hers was not an escape
shrouded in mystery.
643
00:36:21,982 --> 00:36:24,818
John knew precisely
where she had gone.
644
00:36:24,885 --> 00:36:29,323
Consider the advertisement
he posted in April 1739
645
00:36:29,389 --> 00:36:31,491
in attempt to reclaim her.
646
00:36:31,558 --> 00:36:33,927
Besides stating Letitia's name
647
00:36:33,994 --> 00:36:36,630
and describing her
as "a Negro girl,"
648
00:36:36,697 --> 00:36:39,266
it mentioned only one other bit
of information about her:
649
00:36:39,333 --> 00:36:43,170
that she was "bought
of Mr. James Gordon."
650
00:36:43,237 --> 00:36:47,174
The elaborate descriptions which
fill Freedom Seeker notices,
651
00:36:47,241 --> 00:36:51,111
of clothing, appearances,
mannerisms, skills,
652
00:36:51,178 --> 00:36:54,982
origins,
and linguistic capabilities,
653
00:36:55,983 --> 00:36:58,652
these are missing entirely.
654
00:36:59,786 --> 00:37:02,456
John needed to do
just one thing
655
00:37:02,523 --> 00:37:06,093
in order to ensure
Letitia's capture.
656
00:37:07,494 --> 00:37:10,397
Associate the girl
with James,
657
00:37:10,764 --> 00:37:14,568
for Letitia had returned
to the Gordons.
658
00:37:16,870 --> 00:37:20,807
Determined to punish the Gordons
for the girl's escape,
659
00:37:20,874 --> 00:37:26,313
the angry shopkeeper soon filed
a lawsuit against James.
660
00:37:26,380 --> 00:37:29,716
John claimed that he had "lost"
Letitia
661
00:37:29,783 --> 00:37:31,952
and James had "found" her,
662
00:37:32,019 --> 00:37:34,454
speaking about the girl
as if she were an object
663
00:37:34,521 --> 00:37:39,326
that had been misplaced
or perhaps an ignorant beast,
664
00:37:39,393 --> 00:37:41,228
a cow that had strayed
from the herd,
665
00:37:41,295 --> 00:37:44,031
or a sheep that had lost
its way.
666
00:37:45,065 --> 00:37:48,802
But Letitia, for her part,
knew exactly where she was.
667
00:37:48,869 --> 00:37:52,039
She had lived in Boston
for at least the past six years,
668
00:37:52,105 --> 00:37:55,142
and she was intimately familiar
with the neighborhood.
669
00:37:55,209 --> 00:37:57,344
Letitia had not gotten lost.
670
00:37:57,411 --> 00:38:00,347
She had made
a conscious decision to leave,
671
00:38:00,414 --> 00:38:02,850
to walk three-quarters
of a mile,
672
00:38:02,916 --> 00:38:05,919
from one Boston home to another.
673
00:38:08,655 --> 00:38:12,659
Why had Letitia abandoned
her present enslaver
674
00:38:12,726 --> 00:38:14,528
for her former one?
675
00:38:15,028 --> 00:38:19,800
Depositions filed in court
reveal that the girl was sick--
676
00:38:19,867 --> 00:38:21,702
grievously so--
677
00:38:21,768 --> 00:38:24,304
and that she attributed
her ailments
678
00:38:24,371 --> 00:38:28,075
to mistreatment
in the Wass household.
679
00:38:28,141 --> 00:38:30,344
A neighbor recalled
in graphic detail
680
00:38:30,410 --> 00:38:33,280
the extent
of Letitia's suffering.
681
00:38:33,347 --> 00:38:36,049
"She set down in our kitchen
without saying anything
682
00:38:36,116 --> 00:38:39,887
for a considerable time,"
this neighbor wrote,
683
00:38:39,953 --> 00:38:44,424
"being choked with a violent fit
of coughing."
684
00:38:44,491 --> 00:38:46,927
Letitia vomited as well.
685
00:38:46,994 --> 00:38:50,531
This too was described
as "violent,"
686
00:38:50,597 --> 00:38:55,269
and she had lost her appetite
almost entirely.
687
00:38:55,335 --> 00:38:56,703
As the neighbor put it,
688
00:38:56,770 --> 00:39:00,040
Letitia had "scarce any stomach
at her victuals."
689
00:39:00,107 --> 00:39:04,678
She was described by another
as "much emaciated,
690
00:39:05,345 --> 00:39:07,648
"with a violent cough,
691
00:39:07,714 --> 00:39:11,885
a girl in a state
of genuine consumption."
692
00:39:13,654 --> 00:39:17,324
When a neighbor asked Letitia
how long she had suffered
693
00:39:17,391 --> 00:39:18,926
from her racking cough,
694
00:39:18,992 --> 00:39:21,962
the girl answered,
"A good while,"
695
00:39:22,029 --> 00:39:24,431
and she explained
that she had "been ill"
696
00:39:24,498 --> 00:39:28,468
ever since her mistress cut off
her wool.
697
00:39:28,535 --> 00:39:31,939
Letitia, apparently,
was the victim
698
00:39:32,005 --> 00:39:35,475
of the forcible
bodily manipulation
699
00:39:36,043 --> 00:39:40,681
that enslaved people suffered
in many times and places.
700
00:39:40,747 --> 00:39:44,318
John's wife had shorn
the girl's hair,
701
00:39:45,085 --> 00:39:47,554
clearly against her will.
702
00:39:48,322 --> 00:39:51,091
And this maltreatment,
as Letitia saw it,
703
00:39:51,158 --> 00:39:55,095
had consequences that went
beyond physical appearance.
704
00:39:55,162 --> 00:39:59,733
The shearing had made
Letitia dangerously ill.
705
00:40:01,435 --> 00:40:04,838
When the ailing girl showed up
on the Gordons' stoop,
706
00:40:04,905 --> 00:40:10,410
her former enslavers summoned a
doctor in hopes of treating her.
707
00:40:10,477 --> 00:40:12,980
Letitia, though,
remained trapped
708
00:40:13,046 --> 00:40:16,016
by the fact of John's ownership.
709
00:40:16,083 --> 00:40:20,087
The doctor refused
even to dispense advice
710
00:40:20,754 --> 00:40:23,056
because he did not have
the permission
711
00:40:23,123 --> 00:40:26,026
of the girl's "proper master."
712
00:40:27,594 --> 00:40:29,429
And though the Gordons made
an effort
713
00:40:29,496 --> 00:40:31,732
to hide Letitia in their home,
714
00:40:31,798 --> 00:40:35,035
secreting her
in an upper chamber,
715
00:40:35,469 --> 00:40:38,972
Letitia was forced back
to the Wass home
716
00:40:39,039 --> 00:40:41,441
before the end of April.
717
00:40:42,543 --> 00:40:46,146
A heartbreaking deposition
recalled that the girl
718
00:40:46,213 --> 00:40:49,716
was "afraid" to go in
upon her return,
719
00:40:49,783 --> 00:40:54,021
and that her old comrade Prince
had to beg John
720
00:40:54,655 --> 00:40:59,459
on Letitia's behalf
not to beat her for absconding.
721
00:41:03,197 --> 00:41:07,434
Head shorn, lungs bloodied,
and body wasted,
722
00:41:09,269 --> 00:41:13,740
Letitia did not live long
in the Wass household.
723
00:41:16,243 --> 00:41:21,381
By July, her lifeless body
lay in an area burial ground.
724
00:41:25,185 --> 00:41:29,323
If anyone memorialized
the place of her interment,
725
00:41:29,389 --> 00:41:33,861
Prince perhaps, or Affey,
or maybe the Gordons,
726
00:41:37,631 --> 00:41:40,534
their marker
does not survive.
727
00:41:46,173 --> 00:41:50,310
Leticia's story is a story
that I wrote through tears,
728
00:41:50,377 --> 00:41:52,646
but it did not begin that way.
729
00:41:52,713 --> 00:41:54,648
"How hopeful," I thought,
730
00:41:54,715 --> 00:41:56,717
when I found the Freedom Seeker
advertisement.
731
00:41:56,783 --> 00:41:58,051
"And how brave!
732
00:41:58,118 --> 00:42:00,687
"This girl marched away
from her enslaver's household.
733
00:42:00,754 --> 00:42:03,023
"She must have had good reason
to do so.
734
00:42:03,090 --> 00:42:04,825
"Did she accomplish her aims?
735
00:42:04,892 --> 00:42:08,462
Did she ultimately manage
to escape slavery?"
736
00:42:08,529 --> 00:42:12,366
And then, I found
the stack of depositions
737
00:42:12,432 --> 00:42:14,668
filed away by the court,
738
00:42:14,735 --> 00:42:18,705
the testimonies of neighbors
to Letitia's wasting,
739
00:42:18,772 --> 00:42:21,808
the statements about her fear
of her enslaver,
740
00:42:21,875 --> 00:42:23,477
the declaration
by the local doctor
741
00:42:23,544 --> 00:42:28,315
that he would not so much as
dispense advice to help the girl
742
00:42:28,382 --> 00:42:31,351
without the permission
of her cruel enslaver,
743
00:42:31,418 --> 00:42:34,721
the confirmation
of Letitia's death.
744
00:42:34,788 --> 00:42:41,094
The contours of Letitia's short
life slowly became clear to me
745
00:42:41,161 --> 00:42:45,632
in a cold, soundless archive
in Massachusetts.
746
00:42:46,600 --> 00:42:51,405
The work was emotionally taxing,
and it was lonely,
747
00:42:52,806 --> 00:42:55,809
as I have found, frankly,
much of my historical work,
748
00:42:55,876 --> 00:43:00,214
including the process
of writing my book, to be.
749
00:43:00,280 --> 00:43:03,550
But the Freedom Seekers Project
as a whole
750
00:43:03,617 --> 00:43:05,853
is the antithesis of solitary.
751
00:43:05,919 --> 00:43:10,457
The undertaking is an
exceptionally collaborative one.
752
00:43:10,524 --> 00:43:14,027
Working with my project team and
website design professionals,
753
00:43:14,094 --> 00:43:15,395
I built a website
754
00:43:15,462 --> 00:43:18,565
with tools for searching
the collection of stories,
755
00:43:18,632 --> 00:43:21,535
including an interactive map.
756
00:43:22,569 --> 00:43:27,140
As the collection of stories at
the heart of this project grows,
757
00:43:27,207 --> 00:43:28,575
we have published essays
758
00:43:28,642 --> 00:43:32,079
authored by nearly 50
different contributors.
759
00:43:32,145 --> 00:43:36,583
These range from undergraduate
students to senior scholars.
760
00:43:36,650 --> 00:43:39,786
And teaching is at the heart
of our undertaking,
761
00:43:39,853 --> 00:43:42,756
and that is often done
as a team.
762
00:43:44,224 --> 00:43:46,426
The Freedom Seekers Project
has run an internship
763
00:43:46,493 --> 00:43:49,062
through the history department
for the past five semesters,
764
00:43:49,129 --> 00:43:51,498
which has allowed UW students
to master
765
00:43:51,565 --> 00:43:53,333
the difficult historical work
766
00:43:53,400 --> 00:43:56,670
of piecing together
these untold stories.
767
00:43:56,737 --> 00:43:59,339
And students beyond UW
have benefited
768
00:43:59,406 --> 00:44:02,009
from the Freedom Seekers Project
as well.
769
00:44:02,075 --> 00:44:04,344
The team has made instructional
materials available
770
00:44:04,411 --> 00:44:07,080
free of charge on its website,
which have been used
771
00:44:07,147 --> 00:44:10,751
by professors in college classes
nationwide,
772
00:44:10,817 --> 00:44:12,920
from the University
of Pennsylvania
773
00:44:12,986 --> 00:44:16,557
to Appalachian State
to Johns Hopkins
774
00:44:16,623 --> 00:44:20,294
to the University of California,
Berkeley, and beyond.
775
00:44:20,360 --> 00:44:22,362
In this semiquincentennial year,
776
00:44:22,429 --> 00:44:25,032
our bank of stories
is rapidly expanding.
777
00:44:25,098 --> 00:44:27,668
The website,
which links to freely available
778
00:44:27,734 --> 00:44:30,070
runaway advertisements
on the Internet,
779
00:44:30,137 --> 00:44:33,173
invites professors, graduate
students, undergraduates,
780
00:44:33,240 --> 00:44:35,375
and knowledgeable members
of the public
781
00:44:35,442 --> 00:44:37,644
to interpret
these advertisements
782
00:44:37,711 --> 00:44:39,313
and use them as the foundation
783
00:44:39,379 --> 00:44:42,616
for stories
of their own creation.
784
00:44:43,150 --> 00:44:47,120
Perhaps one of you might
try your hand at this.
785
00:44:47,187 --> 00:44:48,555
Because the Freedom Seekers
Project
786
00:44:48,622 --> 00:44:50,190
is a community-sourced
undertaking
787
00:44:50,257 --> 00:44:52,259
with collaboration at its heart,
788
00:44:52,326 --> 00:44:55,662
I wanted to share one story
tonight, the last one,
789
00:44:55,729 --> 00:44:59,499
authored not by myself,
but by a collaborator.
790
00:44:59,566 --> 00:45:02,135
This final story, about Solomon,
was researched
791
00:45:02,202 --> 00:45:05,005
and written by my colleague
Simon Newman,
792
00:45:05,072 --> 00:45:06,807
though I have altered it
just a little bit
793
00:45:06,874 --> 00:45:10,444
for the purpose
of this presentation.
794
00:45:11,345 --> 00:45:13,146
"Solomon."
795
00:45:13,213 --> 00:45:14,882
Solomon was as driven
796
00:45:14,948 --> 00:45:16,717
by a determination
to live in freedom
797
00:45:16,783 --> 00:45:19,353
as were Patrick Henry
and Thomas Jefferson.
798
00:45:19,419 --> 00:45:21,555
But he was
not necessarily inspired
799
00:45:21,622 --> 00:45:24,491
by their rhetoric about liberty.
800
00:45:24,558 --> 00:45:25,926
Born and raised in Africa,
801
00:45:25,993 --> 00:45:28,896
Solomon had been in
North America only a short time
802
00:45:28,962 --> 00:45:33,800
when his relentless drive
to be free made itself manifest.
803
00:45:33,867 --> 00:45:36,069
In his first two years
in North America,
804
00:45:36,136 --> 00:45:37,538
Solomon escaped twice.
805
00:45:37,604 --> 00:45:40,174
But we know little
about these escapes.
806
00:45:40,240 --> 00:45:44,711
Solomon escaped
for the third time in June 1773.
807
00:45:45,579 --> 00:45:47,648
By the time his enslaver,
Thomas Cockey,
808
00:45:47,714 --> 00:45:50,284
advertised for him in 1774,
809
00:45:51,718 --> 00:45:55,189
Solomon had been living
on his own for about a year.
810
00:45:55,255 --> 00:45:57,558
As this was Solomon's
third escape
811
00:45:57,624 --> 00:45:59,393
in only three years
out of Africa,
812
00:45:59,459 --> 00:46:02,763
it is little wonder that Thomas
described the young man
813
00:46:02,829 --> 00:46:08,635
as "a cunningly crafty rogue"
who belied his "innocent look."
814
00:46:11,205 --> 00:46:15,776
In his early 20s,
Solomon was a "saltwater man,"
815
00:46:15,843 --> 00:46:18,946
meaning that he worked
aboard oceangoing ships
816
00:46:19,012 --> 00:46:21,348
operating out of Baltimore.
817
00:46:21,415 --> 00:46:24,251
Of a middling size,
with a large head,
818
00:46:24,318 --> 00:46:26,587
he spoke "pretty good English,"
819
00:46:26,653 --> 00:46:30,657
especially considering
his short time in the Americas.
820
00:46:30,724 --> 00:46:33,760
At the time Thomas posted
this advertisement,
821
00:46:33,827 --> 00:46:39,132
Solomon apparently was living
in New Castle in Delaware,
822
00:46:39,199 --> 00:46:43,203
where he resided for a year
or even longer.
823
00:46:43,270 --> 00:46:46,440
He also spent some time
in nearby Philadelphia.
824
00:46:46,507 --> 00:46:52,145
And in July 1774, just a month
after Thomas advertised for him,
825
00:46:52,212 --> 00:46:56,450
Solomon made his way
to Somerset County, Maryland.
826
00:46:56,517 --> 00:47:00,521
After this, he was taken up
and imprisoned.
827
00:47:01,088 --> 00:47:05,826
The advertisement, it seems,
accomplished its purpose.
828
00:47:05,893 --> 00:47:07,561
By November 1774,
829
00:47:08,529 --> 00:47:11,198
Thomas had reclaimed
the Freedom Seeker
830
00:47:11,265 --> 00:47:14,501
and brought him back
to Baltimore.
831
00:47:15,202 --> 00:47:17,337
Thomas took precautions
to make sure
832
00:47:17,404 --> 00:47:21,542
that the young man
would not escape again.
833
00:47:21,608 --> 00:47:26,013
He had an iron collar fitted
around Solomon's neck.
834
00:47:26,079 --> 00:47:29,349
He placed fetters
around his ankles,
835
00:47:29,416 --> 00:47:33,253
and he attached a chain
to one of those fetters.
836
00:47:33,320 --> 00:47:35,522
These were not
just any restraints.
837
00:47:35,589 --> 00:47:40,827
They were, as Thomas put it
himself, all double riveted.
838
00:47:42,930 --> 00:47:47,000
Despite their structural
integrity, the shackles failed.
839
00:47:47,067 --> 00:47:52,439
For in July of 1775, Solomon
escaped for the fourth time.
840
00:47:53,473 --> 00:47:55,042
On this occasion,
841
00:47:55,108 --> 00:47:59,780
he fled with a white servant
named Richard Dawson.
842
00:48:01,548 --> 00:48:05,819
Thomas believed that the
two men would "make for Boston,"
843
00:48:05,886 --> 00:48:09,289
which was at this time
under siege by the British.
844
00:48:09,356 --> 00:48:11,358
Thomas expected Solomon
and Richard
845
00:48:11,425 --> 00:48:14,862
to join the British soldiers
because, he stated,
846
00:48:14,928 --> 00:48:18,565
"They have often been talking
about them."
847
00:48:18,632 --> 00:48:22,669
Like Solomon, Richard had
an iron collar around his neck,
848
00:48:22,736 --> 00:48:25,572
and Thomas thought it "likely
they may get off their irons,
849
00:48:25,639 --> 00:48:28,041
"get other clothes,
change their names,
850
00:48:28,108 --> 00:48:33,380
and deny their master,
as the Negro has always done."
851
00:48:34,481 --> 00:48:37,885
The advertisement following
Solomon's fourth escape
852
00:48:37,951 --> 00:48:40,254
was reprinted at least six times
853
00:48:40,320 --> 00:48:43,891
between May 16
and September 18, 1775,
854
00:48:45,659 --> 00:48:50,330
in both Maryland
and in Pennsylvania newspapers.
855
00:48:50,898 --> 00:48:54,334
On October 5,
Solomon was taken into custody
856
00:48:54,401 --> 00:48:59,106
by Ralph Foster in Prince George
County, Maryland.
857
00:48:59,173 --> 00:49:01,808
Ralph advertised
that he had possession
858
00:49:01,875 --> 00:49:05,579
"of a Negro man
who says his name is Solomon
859
00:49:05,646 --> 00:49:08,182
and that he belongs
to Thomas Cockey."
860
00:49:08,248 --> 00:49:12,619
Ralph made it known that the
enslaver could reclaim Solomon
861
00:49:12,686 --> 00:49:14,688
upon paying charges.
862
00:49:16,690 --> 00:49:19,626
But this would not be Solomon's
last escape,
863
00:49:19,693 --> 00:49:22,329
nor would it mark the end
of his adventures in freedom.
864
00:49:22,396 --> 00:49:26,533
In the fall of 1776,
he fled for a fifth time.
865
00:49:26,600 --> 00:49:30,137
When another enslaved man
named Tooley escaped from Thomas
866
00:49:30,204 --> 00:49:32,673
in late September of 1778,
867
00:49:33,707 --> 00:49:37,744
the enslaver advertised for
Tooley in the Maryland Journal,
868
00:49:37,811 --> 00:49:41,281
but also described Solomon, who
had been absent for two years.
869
00:49:41,348 --> 00:49:43,417
During this lengthy period
of liberty,
870
00:49:43,483 --> 00:49:48,288
Thomas would later reveal,
Solomon had been at Fort Pitt
871
00:49:48,355 --> 00:49:52,159
and many other places
about the country.
872
00:49:52,226 --> 00:49:55,529
Fort Pitt was an American base
for defensive operations
873
00:49:55,596 --> 00:49:58,265
against violent resistance
874
00:49:58,732 --> 00:50:02,302
by the Indigenous allies
of the British.
875
00:50:03,504 --> 00:50:07,107
There, American colonel
Daniel Brodhead
876
00:50:07,174 --> 00:50:12,246
organized several operations
along the Allegheny River,
877
00:50:12,312 --> 00:50:14,515
occasionally fighting
against the Seneca
878
00:50:14,581 --> 00:50:16,950
and other Indigenous warriors
879
00:50:17,017 --> 00:50:22,089
and sacking and burning
empty Indigenous settlements.
880
00:50:22,155 --> 00:50:26,493
Did Solomon take place in these
or related operations?
881
00:50:26,560 --> 00:50:28,462
What else
might he have been doing
882
00:50:28,529 --> 00:50:31,131
during this long period
of freedom,
883
00:50:31,198 --> 00:50:32,332
when he had made his way
884
00:50:32,399 --> 00:50:36,170
to "many other places
around the country?"
885
00:50:36,236 --> 00:50:38,372
We cannot know,
but what seems clear
886
00:50:38,438 --> 00:50:42,075
is that Solomon's determination
to be free had little to do
887
00:50:42,142 --> 00:50:44,878
with the American patriots'
contemporaneous struggles
888
00:50:44,945 --> 00:50:48,649
for individual
and national liberty.
889
00:50:48,715 --> 00:50:50,517
The man appears
to have been indifferent
890
00:50:50,584 --> 00:50:53,353
as to which side to take
in the revolutionary conflict.
891
00:50:53,420 --> 00:50:55,889
He plotted joining the British
in Boston,
892
00:50:55,956 --> 00:50:59,159
then joined the Americans
in Fort Pitt.
893
00:50:59,226 --> 00:51:01,562
Solomon apparently
took advantage
894
00:51:01,628 --> 00:51:05,199
of the chaos of these years
and the needs of both British
895
00:51:05,265 --> 00:51:08,869
and American commanders
for young and able fighting men
896
00:51:08,936 --> 00:51:13,841
or for manual or skilled
workers, such as seafarers.
897
00:51:14,541 --> 00:51:17,644
After his time in Fort Pitt,
Solomon again was recaptured,
898
00:51:17,711 --> 00:51:21,849
which we know because
two years later, in 1780,
899
00:51:21,915 --> 00:51:26,787
Solomon escaped from Thomas
for at least the sixth time,
900
00:51:26,854 --> 00:51:29,189
despite the fact
that he had again been fitted
901
00:51:29,256 --> 00:51:32,092
with an iron collar
around his neck.
902
00:51:32,159 --> 00:51:33,460
On this occasion,
903
00:51:33,527 --> 00:51:38,165
Thomas made Solomon's
African identity clear,
904
00:51:38,232 --> 00:51:41,902
describing him
as a "Guinea Negro man,"
905
00:51:43,837 --> 00:51:48,175
and somewhat wearily,
the enslaver reiterated
906
00:51:48,242 --> 00:51:54,381
that despite his harmless look,
Solomon was a "sly villain."
907
00:51:55,816 --> 00:51:58,485
Having previously escaped
with a white servant,
908
00:51:58,552 --> 00:52:01,788
on this occasion,
Solomon was partnered with Eben,
909
00:52:01,855 --> 00:52:06,793
another "Guinea Negro man" who
also had escaped from Thomas.
910
00:52:06,860 --> 00:52:12,032
At this point, Solomon fades
from the historical record.
911
00:52:12,099 --> 00:52:15,569
There appear to be
no other mentions of him.
912
00:52:15,636 --> 00:52:19,473
The American Revolution
was not so much a causal factor
913
00:52:19,540 --> 00:52:23,243
as a backdrop for this
determined young African man
914
00:52:23,310 --> 00:52:26,547
to try repeatedly
to free himself,
915
00:52:26,613 --> 00:52:29,917
siding with whomever
might offer him liberty.
916
00:52:29,983 --> 00:52:34,988
Not even shackles, chains,
or collars held the man back,
917
00:52:35,055 --> 00:52:37,124
as twice he escaped
while wearing
918
00:52:37,191 --> 00:52:40,861
these highly visible markers
of enslaved status,
919
00:52:40,928 --> 00:52:45,632
contriving to have them removed
and to remain at liberty.
920
00:52:45,699 --> 00:52:49,503
Had Solomon been recaptured
and returned to Thomas,
921
00:52:49,570 --> 00:52:50,904
it seems likely
922
00:52:50,971 --> 00:52:55,175
that such a resolute Freedom
Seeker would have escaped again,
923
00:52:55,242 --> 00:52:59,479
and likely as well that Thomas
would have advertised for him,
924
00:52:59,546 --> 00:53:02,883
as he had done
so many times already.
925
00:53:03,483 --> 00:53:08,288
Perhaps this final bid
for freedom was successful.
926
00:53:11,625 --> 00:53:14,361
Solomon's story suggests
that people in bondage
927
00:53:14,428 --> 00:53:16,797
took full advantage
of the upheaval of revolution
928
00:53:16,864 --> 00:53:18,665
to make a break for freedom,
929
00:53:18,732 --> 00:53:20,567
and they were willing
to collaborate
930
00:53:20,634 --> 00:53:23,437
with whichever side served
their purposes,
931
00:53:23,504 --> 00:53:26,306
whether patriot or Loyalist.
932
00:53:27,508 --> 00:53:31,178
But Solomon's path was not
Pompey Fleet's path
933
00:53:31,245 --> 00:53:33,580
or the path followed by Will,
934
00:53:33,647 --> 00:53:38,252
nor that of Titus or Bina
or Pero or George Samba
935
00:53:38,318 --> 00:53:41,221
or Bet or Prime or Tom
or Cuff Dix
936
00:53:42,389 --> 00:53:45,092
or Caesar or Daniel Anderson.
937
00:53:45,158 --> 00:53:46,927
If you peruse
our project website,
938
00:53:46,994 --> 00:53:48,529
you will find
many dozens of stories
939
00:53:48,595 --> 00:53:51,398
about bondspeople who confronted
the realities of revolution,
940
00:53:51,465 --> 00:53:53,934
each of whom charted
a somewhat different course
941
00:53:54,001 --> 00:53:55,669
than the others.
942
00:53:56,136 --> 00:53:59,873
For all, though,
freedom was the North Star.
943
00:54:01,808 --> 00:54:04,845
The Freedom Seekers Project
makes abundantly clear
944
00:54:04,912 --> 00:54:08,282
that white patriots were by
no means alone in their struggle
945
00:54:08,348 --> 00:54:11,051
to achieve what
Thomas Jefferson immortalized
946
00:54:11,118 --> 00:54:13,220
in the Declaration
of Independence
947
00:54:13,287 --> 00:54:17,558
as "life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness."
948
00:54:17,624 --> 00:54:20,727
Countless people of color
fled slavery,
949
00:54:20,794 --> 00:54:24,131
seeking freedom
during the American Revolution.
950
00:54:24,198 --> 00:54:26,133
These brave stands for liberty
951
00:54:26,200 --> 00:54:29,269
were at once personal
and political.
952
00:54:29,336 --> 00:54:33,073
They resulted not only
in freedom for individuals,
953
00:54:33,140 --> 00:54:36,677
but also in challenges
to the system of racial bondage
954
00:54:36,743 --> 00:54:39,613
that was foundational
to the Americas.
955
00:54:39,680 --> 00:54:42,115
Through their daring demands
for liberty,
956
00:54:42,182 --> 00:54:45,319
fugitives helped spur
an unprecedented
957
00:54:45,385 --> 00:54:51,191
Revolutionary-era challenge to
slavery and racial inequality.
958
00:54:52,226 --> 00:54:56,630
Still, the stand against slavery
long predated the revolution,
959
00:54:56,697 --> 00:55:00,267
as we can see
in Penelope's 1704 flight
960
00:55:00,767 --> 00:55:04,872
or in the vision of Letitia,
deathly ill,
961
00:55:04,938 --> 00:55:08,075
stumbling across Boston in 1739.
962
00:55:10,844 --> 00:55:12,613
And these snippets of sources,
963
00:55:12,679 --> 00:55:16,183
which number in the tens of
thousands in early newspapers,
964
00:55:16,250 --> 00:55:21,922
though originally posted
to capture fugitive bondspeople,
965
00:55:22,689 --> 00:55:27,828
they allow us to capture
something else altogether.
966
00:55:28,962 --> 00:55:34,301
A bold and inspiring vision
of the unrelenting efforts
967
00:55:34,368 --> 00:55:38,505
on the part of enslaved people
over generations
968
00:55:38,572 --> 00:55:41,575
to declare their independence.
969
00:55:44,244 --> 00:55:45,679
Thank you.
970
00:55:45,746 --> 00:55:47,748
[audience applauds]