cc  >> So it's time to start our  colloquium.  Today the speaker is Andrei  Varlamov.  It's a great pleasure to welcome  him to the colloquium.  Andrei received his PhD at  Moscow Institute of Physics and  Technology or Moscow Technology,  under supervision of -- who is  working at Argon currently.  From 80s to 90s Andrei was a  professor and associate  scientist at Moscow  Technological University, in '93  he was a fellow at Argo National  Laboratory which he has  frequently visited since then  and from 1999 he is principal  investigator at Institute of --  physics of -- science near Rome.  He is also professor at Tor  Vergata University at Rome.  His main field of specialization  in physics is condensed matter  physics, mostly quantum  phenomena, conductivity.  He's authored many works related  to understanding cofiltration  phenomena in super conductors  and yesterday he gave a very  nice seminar at a condensed  matter group meeting.  Andrei is also known for his  outreach activities,  specifically, he co-authored a  book called "Wonders of Physics"  and it is a book which covers  many everyday phenomena in our  life, from a physicist's point  of view.  For example, he discusses origin  of tidal waves, how moon breaks  -- rotation, some topics which  will be covered at today's  colloquium. 

 He is also on the editorial  board of a very important  journal to many Russian  scientists, a journal called  "Quant" which is a very deep for  high school and a journal  covering many aspects of  physics, mathematics, and other  natural sciences.  Living in the country of one of  the finest cuisines, Andrei  couldn't miss an opportunity to  apply a physicist's knowledge to  understanding how a kitchen  works and also as a frequent  visitor the US, ge also knows  secret of Thanksgiving turkey.  So that's what he'll tell today.  >> Thank you very much for this  wide introduction and hello,  everybody, I'm happy to be here.  I'm not first time in Madison  and have maybe not so intense,  but long-storied relations with  your university and I always  enjoy being in this nice  university town.  Because I am a university person  from the very beginning of my  career, so I always feel myself  good in universities.  Today I will speak not about  super-conductivity or -- metals,  but I will try to share with you  my surprises of everyday  physics.  So I will start because we are  in the United States, so I would  like to start indeed from the  discussion of Thanksgiving  turkey.  And the first question, which I  want to clear up, what it means  to cook meat.  What it means to boil meat. 

 What it means to bake meat.  What it means to grill or to  fry.  We know the taste of all four of  these types of cooking are quite  different.  But let's start from the  simplest.  What it means to boil meat.  To have boiled meat.  So I take the piece of meat,  remember this old joke.  Two professors meet each other  at the Hippodrome and one is  mathematician, and the other  asks him, "Do you gamble?"  He said, "Not yet.  I still develop the theory how  to gamble only in the spheric  approximation of horses."  So I will speak in spheric  approximation of my piece of  meat.  So first of all, a little bit of  chemistry. 

 What does it mean, what's  difference between crude meat  and boiled meat.  Meat mainly consists of proteins  and water, and proteins we  physicists can imagine as simply  some nodes.  Then if temperature grows, so  these nodes become changed and  at some temperatures they form  some kind of carbide.  This carbide in scientific  words, this is degenerated  protein, or it is boiled meat.  It is edible.  So for beef, for instance, it  happens at 74 centigrade.  For fish it is only 47.  Of course it depends on the  fish, but I speak about the  whitefish, like sea bass.  For yolk of egg, this is 63  centigrade.  So we understand that in order  to boil it is necessary to  increase temperature. 

 So I would say if I want to have  all my spheric piece of meat to  be boiled in the center,  well-done, so I need to deliver  heat and increase temperature  and then wait the necessary time  for this carbidization, so  formation of carbide here.  Actually I will speak not for  you because I believe that  everyone in this hall can  resolve the equation of heat  transfer.  But I will not do this.  I am lazy.  I will just analyze its  dimensionality.  We understand, dimensionality,  so I can cancel temperature only  in the sense of dimensionality.  I see the temperature, or time,  sorry, time is proportional to  meters square, to diameter.  I can suppose the cooking time,  just from analysis of  dimensional equation, I will  compare this with exact  solution.  So time depends on the diameter.  Sorry, I will correct it... 

 You see that cooking time, so  time to deliver external  temperature to the center  depends on the size of my sphere  quadratically.  So I can suppose that cooking  time is alpha T square + beta.  Where alpha is a material  parameter.  You can say that this is inverse  heat conductivity, but that does  not matter.  Some material parameter.  And beta is some additive  parameter.  Because if this time was  necessary to deliver  temperature, then I have to wait  a little bit when carbide will  form and I don't know what this  beta is.  So I have two parameters.  Some, I forgot the name, some  English scientist was less lazy  than me and he resolved, he  exactly found the cooking time  for the egg.  Prepared a le coq. 

 So you see that the answer he  got is proportional to the mass  in --.  So this is diameter squared.  And then details depend on  initial temperature, when you  took it from freezer or  refrigerator T-water, boiling  water, T-yolk.  So these are very fine details.  So it will give you some number.  But actually this M over 2/3, we  already got from dimensional  analysis.  Now I decided to cook  Thanksgiving turkey but it is  you who knows how to do this.  I just opened the Google and  wrote "Thanksgiving turkey  cooking time" and I found  beautiful table where you see  mass in pounds and cooking time  in hours.  And in this discussion you  realize that if you bought  turkey, for each pound, it will  take half an hour.  Forget it. 

 There is no linear dependence.  Of course usually people just  read what is written on the bag  and each cook knows his secrets.  But I am a simple person, first  I convinced myself that is  evidently not linear dependent.  Then I just transformed this  table in T-squared, in hours  squared and T-cubed and mass  squared in pounds.  You can see here that this  experiment encodes data for  beautiful linear dependence in  the coordinates wherefrom I can  extract two things.  First, that my simple  dimensional analysis works.  And that I got correct  dependence of cooking time as a  function of the mass of the  piece of meat.  The second, all the interesting  information, that this line goes  to zero.  So beta in my scale of hours is  zero.  Cooking Thanksgiving turkey,  these hours which we wait are  necessary not to degenerate  turkey but to deliver  temperature. 

 It is why usually professionals  use the thermometer which you  enter profoundly in your turkey.  Before I spoke about boiled  meat.  We understand that turkey is not  boiled meat.  It is baked meat.  And what is the difference?  Taste, of course.  But wherefrom comes this taste?  Still in 1911 chemists found  that if you continue to increase  temperature of proteins so not  all bones in your carbide are  equal.  So this is a layer of material  and perpendicular bones.  A temperature for beef, around 0  for turkey, around 140  centigrade, happens so-called  Meyer reaction which is the  carmelization of the  perpendicular bones.  So perpendicular connections in  these proteins differs from in  plane, and they transform into  sugars, so carmelization.  It gives you brown color and  nice taste. 

 You say, okay, let's increase  temperature if we need 140, so  let's increase temperature.  But if you increase temperature,  in many cases you need hours, so  you will burn external parts.  So the recipe is to carry  external temperature not very  high, maybe 160 centigrade and  just above Meyer reaction  temperature, and then wait the  necessary time when all the  volume of the turkey will be  heated to necessary temperature.  Then we will speak about fried  meat.  So again, when you fry meat, it  depends.  You use oil.  Different oils have different  boiling temperatures.  So when you use the olive oil  for example, instead of water,  so boiling in oil means that the  temperature is 180.  I ate once in my life so called  --, it was some plain fish fried  in sugar.  And it was very delicate. 

 It was not sweet because the  skin of the fish does not  absorb, the molecules of sugar  are too large to penetrate.  Diffusion takes much more time.  But you know for instance that  you will not be surprised  because the recipe to cook fish,  to bake fish in salt, you know  it is wonderful.  You just put the layer of salt,  your fish, but without, how to  say. ..  you clean internal parts but  you do not clean surface.  How do you say?  Scales.  Usually a fish of two pounds  needs at least six pounds of  salt.  But then in 30 minutes you just  take a hammer, you put out your  salt and fish is perfect.  It took just necessary quantity  of salt because of diffusion.  You make diffusion more  difficult, and a huge amount of  salt, it is only a heating  agent, nothing more. 

 I will continue and I will try,  I tried to apply my theory for  cylindrical objects, not  spherical, but I will proceed in  respect to those mathematicians,  I will apply to cylindrical  problems.  So, spaghetti.  Not only spaghetti but all  cylindrical pasta.  I want to start the theory of  cooking cylindrical pasta.  You can see that first of all,  what it means to cook pasta.  It is not enough only to heat  it.  Take pasta, put it in the oven,  heat it, and it will not be  spaghetti.  (laughter)  It is not enough to  only put it in water.  Put in cold water it will not be  edible.  So it is necessary  simultaneously to deliver, to  heat it, and to deliver water,  because spaghetti is dry. 

 So it is necessary.  The situation is more simple --,  but my model will because I need  to deliver it to the center of  pasta.  Heat and water.  So diffusion and heat  conductivity.  Both equations have the same  form, the equations, the same  solutions.  So again I will say that cooking  time will be proportional to  diameter squared plus B.  But first time, alpha was a  material parameter which since I  recognized and told you it was  inverse heat conductivity.  In this case it will be some  combination of heat conductivity  and the diffusion coefficient.  So I don't know which mechanism  needs more time, but it is clear  that there will be some material  parameter again.  And B is again, we know, that  this is cooking time necessary. 

 First it was the time of  carbidization, of formation of  carbide.  Here I will call this parameter  nationality of eater.  So this parameter requires to  know who will eat.  Because usually I will not  comment on American preparation  of pasta.  I will speak about Russian, I  know this well.  Now in Russia you can buy  Italian spaghetti, and usually  my wife takes spaghetti, looks,  Italians say seven minutes.  So after 14 it will be okay.  But Italians think that seven  minutes, even better, not seven,  may be better at 5.5.  Then throw away the water and to  continue last one or 1.5  minutes in the pan together  with sauce, and I will explain  why.  So seven. 

 Why?  Because Italians eat spaghetti  al dente.  They want to have the central  parts still a little bit rigid.  So in my model, I will say that  water and heat did not reach to  the center.  So it is why I suppose that my  parameter B will be negative.  Let's see.  This is a general discussion.  Then I went to supermarket,  indeed I did this.  I bought capellini d'angelo  number one, spaghettini number  three, spaghetti number five,  vermicelli number seven,  vermicelli number eight, and  bucatini.  Then I went to the lab of my  neighbor.  I took the micrometer and I  measured their external  diameters. 

 Here you can see that  variational diameters in very  narrow, all what we call  spaghetti and vermicelli changed  from 115 to 270, and 270 is not  the same.  It is bucatini, it has a hole.  So then it has internal  diameter, one diameter, then  experimental time, which is  printed on the package.  Then this is theoretical.  To find the theoretical value of  cooking time, I need to know  parameters A and B.  So it is easy to do, just  normalize them, I still remember  what I was taught in university  in experimental physics.  Professor told us never take  minimal and maximum values to  make the extrapolation or  interpolation.  So I took not capellini, but I  took spaghettini and I took  vermicelli.  So you see here, 5.0  minutes, and this coincides  with experimental because I just  chose this way.  And here --. 

 Look please at the other data.  Spaghetti number five.  Eight minutes and I got  8.2. 11, 10.7.  But I have problems with  capellini.  Two minutes instead of three.  So 50% wrong.  And with bucatini, this is just  bankruptcy over here, just  downfall.  So I got 25 instead of eight.  But this is just the  approximation.  Because bucatini has a hole. 

 So for what reason is done this  hole?  Then later you will see how to  do.  This is not --.  I will happy is some student  will explain to me how to make a  hole in pasta.  Technologically.  So someone did this hole, so it  is necessary.  Why necessary?  To enter water it is evident.  So to heat from the internal  part.  Of course not.  Because boiling, so to heat, to  transfer energy is necessary,  boiling.  But you will not have boiling in  23 centimeters long and one  millimeter diameter. 

 But you will have 100  centigrade.  So it is not necessary to heat  the central part.  So I cut it from the cylinder,  just to not heat.  So I take my formula and from  external diameter I extract  internal and I immediately have  8. 2  and it fits very good with  experimental value.  Now I did not stress that my  analysis of A and B parameter  indeed gave me -- B is negative.  Minus three minutes.  So you have to take your  spaghetti from boiling water.  Still when the central part,  another three minutes, and you  would have completely cooked  spaghetti.  But al dente, you need to  extract these three minutes.  So now if B is negative, now I  want to understand this  discrepancy. 

 My model consists in the fact  that I need to deliver heat not  to the end.  So this means that if I will  take spaghetti very thin, so I  can be an Italian, I do not cook  them at all.  Because they will be al dente.  So my model does not correspond  exactly to the reality.  So I would ask, what diameter is  necessary in my model to not  cook spaghetti at all?  Oh my God.  (laughter)  Sorry.  Sorry.  I need to quit  from...offline.  Okay.  So I will suppose that cooking  time is zero. 

 And because B is negative it is  possible.  The corresponding diameter is  .85. And  capellini d'angelo has 1.15,  so I understand that this  discrepancy between experiment  and theory because my model does  not work on this scale of  diameters.  Not too thin and not too thick.  And we see that for all Italian  spaghetti, there is only one  millimeter from 1.15 to 2.10.  Because if you want to make  vermicelli more thick, you need  to make hole and it will be  bucatini.  Very good.  Now I want to tell you about the  relatively recent paper of two  French physicists, the --, that  is not Italian.  They studied how spaghetti  breaks.  They got Ig Nobel Prize last  year for this research.  So what they did. 

 When you return home, take  spaghetti and make the arc.  Then try to break it.  And you will see that almost  always you will have three or  four pieces, not two.  Of course, you can cheat.  But if you are honest and you  will just not do something more,  but just make arc, you will see  that usually spaghetti, that  means 23 cm length, so that is  important.  23 cm, breaks in three parts.  And these guys published a  beautiful article but what they  did, they wrote -- equation for  the strain in the system.  Then they introduced some  universal, blah blah blah, they  studied solutions and they will  say what happens.  But I will explain by hand what  happened.  So we have spaghetti. 

 It is elastic, in some limits,  elastic.  I curve it.  I can do this as some strain  develops in it.  In some moment, in any real  system, there are some  inhomogeneities.  So it contains some weak point.  In this weak point, happens  first break.  What happens from the formal  point of view?  Still the same equation  describes the distribution of  strain.  But boundary conditions change.  So this is from their point of  view, what they do.  From physical point of view,  what happens?  First break happens, let's  suppose the first break happened  far from the middle point. 

 So one rod is much longer than  another.  About the short one I will not  speak, I will speak about the  long one.  It is still curved, it is still  under the stress because the  break happens instantaneously.  But now the -- wave propagates  it due to the break.  You have some wave and it  generates some additional stress  in the system, strain.  And in result, to your initial  static strain is added this  dynamical one.  So there are nodes and maximum.  And then this maximum, due to  their calculation, you can see.  This is a distribution of the  strain in the curvature in the  free part.  And you can see that if initial  was one, so in this point, you  have more than 50%. 

 Of course, does this point exist  or not?  Depends on the length,  elasticity, of the material  parameters.  But for 23 it works.  So if it is more than half, it  works.  And in result, here will happen  second break.  You will have all of the three  pieces.  How to get four pieces?  If the weak point was around the  middle point, so you have two  rods and the same story will  happen into it, you will have  finally four pieces.  You can experiment at home.  Now I want, maybe...  No, actually I want to tell  you something else because we  still have time because this  second scenario which I would  like to tell you, second episode  would be about Italian coffee,  to open the secret of good  Italian coffee.  But I want to say another, I did  not include here, I found a  beautiful scalar relation how to  marry sauce with size of pasta. 

 So I finish this spaghetti, and  now I want to speak about, say,  macaroni, so more large pasta.  The question is, almost everyone  here, knows what pesto Genova  is?  It's some green, very dense  sauce and based on basil, oil,  parmesan, etc.  And usually no Italian would  have the fantasy to take  capellini d'angelo, this is very  thin pasta, and mix it with  pesto.  I tried to do, because of my  curiosity, and what I got?  I got some sphere of cooked  pasta, covered by this pesto.  But pesto does not enter, so  maybe if I would do one by one  by one, or mix one hour, I  could, I would succeed.  But it does not help me, why?  Intuitively, no.  Because viscosity.  Viscous liquid has to penetrate  in very dense media.  So intuitively it is clear.  More dense sauce, more large  size of pasta. 

 So what I did, actually, I took   some whole cylinder, and I  consider the viscous flow in  accordance with Poiseuille's  Law.  And under the effect of  gravitational force.  And I found that what I have to  measure, I need time.  Because the pasta must be eaten  hot.  So I don't have ten minutes, I  have to do this in one minute.  So time is fixed.  So the mixing time, I evaluated,  from the flow viscous liquid in  whole cylinder, to cover one  linear centimeter, and I found  that this value is proportional  to viscosity and time.  More viscosity, more time.  And inversely proportional to  the diameter squared of pasta.  You can say, what about internal  part?  I will say in this case the  cylinder is more or less flowing  internal or external because the  sizes will be the same. 

 So the scalar law with governs  the mixing of pasta with sauce  is --.  So the diameter of pasta grows  as a square root of eta.  Or you have another possibility,  which I did not open something,  unfortunately.  But you have to shorten this  time, or decrease size of pasta,  or decrease viscosity.  How to decrease viscosity?  To do over the fire, in the pan.  You just cook your sauce, you do  not cool it.  You use it at 100 centigrade,  you throw away water from your  pasta, and then you put your  pasta not in cold sauce but in  hot sauce and you do all your  mixture at the pan.  And you win time this way.  Okay, now I finish with pasta  and we pass to coffee.  So actually, why this question  appear?  Because when I came many years  ago, 20 years ago in Italy, it  was Naples or something. 

 Fantastic, it was first time  allowed to go abroad from Soviet  Union.  I came directly to so enigmatic  city, the story of more than  3,000 years, in this --, this  means the "fire lands" because  there are a lot of volcanoes,  and different seismic phenomena.  And indeed very interesting and  beautiful.  In Italy, usually people go to  eat together, like in the  States, from university.  But no one drinks coffee the  same place where they ate their  lunch.  And then here shows itself the  diversity because of that.  Because each group believes  their bar is better.  And they go to drink coffee only  at this bar.  So I was invited to some bar in  Arco Felice, and Antonio Barone,  who was my host, he said, "Cafe,  cafe, cafe," I said, "Tea."  Okay.  So each one got some small cup  of brown liquid, almost like  petrol. 

 And they certainly were  satisfied.  It was a very viscous liquid, I  got the large cup of some hot  water, but there was large foam,  and the tea bag.  So It was supposed to be tea.  And so tea was very bad, indeed.  Next day, the story repeated,  and then Antonio told me, "You  are in democratic country, you  can do what you want.  But I command you in Italy,  never drink tea.  Drink only coffee."  And I asked myself, it was a  serious question, why Italian  coffee is so good, and tea so  bad.  And I found the reason is --.  The only reason that explains  all.  And I will try to share this  discovery with you. 

 So I believe that I know that.  Ah, yes.  This is a typical Italian coffee  maker.  So it is called mocha, and it  consists of three principal  elements.  It is the boiler, where you pour  water.  Here there is a valve in case  something happened to allow the  steam to go away.  Then you have a sache filter.  And here you have water.  Here you have vapor, steam, but  it is still saturated, I  suppose.  And then you have filter filled  by coffee in a gasket and then  some tube from brewed coffee is  collected in upper container. 

 That's all.  And usually Italians drink  coffee at home, this coffee  maker in any family, for two  persons, for six persons.  Okay, so what happens here?  I put this coffee maker in the  fire.  Temperature increases.  Temperature increases and reach  100 centigrade.  Then what happens?  Students.  >> (inaudible)  >> Good.  No one said that water boils.  Water does not boil, of course,  because the process of boiling  needs open surface.  Here you have hermetic volume so  there is equilibrium between  water and steam. 

 And then you can only increase,  if you continue to heat the  system, so you will travel.  This is a phase diagram,  pressure, temperature.  So you will continue to travel  along the border between liquid  and steam.  So pressure increases because  it's 100 centigrade, external  one atmosphere.  So in this filter, you have one  atmosphere, external, and one  atmosphere internal.  Temperature increases.  Steam pressure increases.  Steam presses the water.  There is a difference between  external pressure and internal.  Water goes up. 

 It reaches the lower surface of  filter and nothing happens.  Nothing happens because of the  -- structure.  And to start filtration it is  necessary to surpass capillary  forces.  So this is a -- process.  You need to apply some  infinitesimal pressure  difference to start the  filtration process.  By the way, it was not so simple  to find.  This is so-called --.  This is a mass of liquid which  is passed through filter in one  second.  It is proportional to square  section of filter, naturally.  The pressure difference, which I  applied, and then --. 

 It is inversely proportional to  the length of filter and the  viscosity of liquid.  Kappa, K, is a parameter, which  is called porosity of the  system.  To give you idea for sand,  depending on the diameter of  particles of sand, this  co-efficient change between 10  minus 12, 10 minus 14.  I found this equation in the  course of physics for petroleum  engineers, actually.  Then I recognized how to drive  it.  You have to write a -- equation  for two liquid systems, one with  zero viscosity, and you can get  this.  So this is a consequence of --.  But in practice this equation  costs millions because of all  petroleum production.  I think people at the University  of Chicago have good money from  gas companies to study how this  equation is applicable to  petroleum production.  It is a special topic which  maybe next time I will discuss. 

 So we understood that all of  what we have, we can only travel  here.  So what are the secrets of this  story?  First of all, you understand now  that coefficient of porosity, I  can manage just pressing or not  pressing coffee in filter.  Or if I buy coffee ground for  espresso and put in mocha.  All this will depend.  Because I will increase porosity  and automatically I will  increase the temperature when my  coffee brewing will start.  And high temperature kills  coffee.  Even when you prepare in  Armenian or Turkish way, coffee  in --.  So the recipe says, never boil  coffee.  But not bubbles kill coffee.  High temperature does. 

 Even 100 is too much.  So what to do?  Actually the physical parameters  which define optimal cooking, so  you just put your coffee of  correct grounds inside, you put  it free, you did not press, the  pressure will be 0. 3  atmosphere, and temperature  around 115 centigrade.  So you will heat your coffee  with respect to the boiling  point.  Okay.  Now I want to discuss the  machines which I show here.  Actually I will speak about this  machine.  This was an initial old espresso  machine which was invented in  19th century by Italian  engineers.  Now it is much more automatic.  What happens here?  It is very simple.  You just put compressor and  thermostat. 

 So now instead of walking along  the line in the plane, you have  in your possession --.  You invite 100 sommeliers, they  all taste coffee from different  points, and decide that optimal  conditions for brewing of  Italian espresso are pressure  from nine to 16 atmospheres.  Temperatures, 88, 92 centigrade.  So below 100.  Brewing time.  15 to 25 seconds.  Volume, 25 to 35 mm.  The temperature at the tongue  when you drink, it must be 68 to  70 centigrade.  So all is strictly determined.  Only difference between Italian  cuisine and American is no  democracy. 

 For one friend of mine, my  schoolmate, complains that he  was in Naples and he ordered  spaghetti alle vongole, so it  was seafood.  Then he asked to add parmigiano.  So the waiter became very angry  and told him that he will not  give him parmigiano.  So Alec told him, "I pay, so you  will give me."  So he said, "Go away.  I will give you money, but I  will not give you parmigiano."  Why?  Because in so many years they  know exactly that with  parmigiano, will be worse.  And no one wants to reconsider  this problem.  So it is extremely conservative.  And there are some tendencies,  for instance, to prepare the ice  cream with liquid nitrogen, but  we understand why it will be  good.  Because it is like amorphous  metal preparation.  When liquid nitrogen evaporates,  the temperature changes in time  so fast, you do not leave time  for the formation of crystals,  so you have very small crystals  and such ice cream is very  homogenous, it's nice to eat. 

 But of course, it is very  important what material you  start to prepare it with.  Okay.  So about coffee.  I told you I still have ten  minutes and maybe I will speak  about when I asked, "Can I speak  about this or not?"  I'm not sure that you all have  21 years.  Actually I refuse absolutely my  responsibility, so I just want  to...  this is a joking part of my  talk.  So it is wine and --.  This is serious.  In 1990 in Lancet, so it is a  notorious English magazine, was  published this figure.  You can see here mortality for  100,000 persons from heart  diseases. 

 And as a function of fat  consumption.  And you can see that in  Portugal, ex-Yugoslavia, Italy,  Spain, etc.  people eat only few saturated  fats.  They eat usually oil and they  die from other reasons, not from  heart diseases.  Then the situation becomes  reversed in Germany, in UK, in  Denmark, Finland, and in France,  in spite of the fact that they  eat more saturated fat than  English people, their mortality  is three times less than the UK.  So people, what is the first  idea why it is so?  Because the English, they drink  beer.  And French, they drink wine.  So the idea was that the secret  of resistance against heart  diseases is wine consumption.  When, in America, some  tele-journalist found this data,  he presented it in one of the  central channel, and French wine  consumption increased in two  months by 50 of 60%.  So this means good commercial. 

 But then later, indeed,  scientists found that in red  wine exists some type of soap,  actually, which polishes our  veins from the cholesterol.  I am very trivial in this  explanation, but it is good.  So it seems that the advice  could be, drink as much as  possible red wine.  But besides the effect on your  productivity we know that there  are other effects of wine.  For instance, the cirrhosis of  liver.  And the more alcohol you use,  the more probably it is to get  this disease.  So I just, for a joke, propose  the following model that the  probability to get heart disease  decreases exponentially with  wine consumption.  Usually in the area of Bordeaux,  I asked, people drink one bottle  per capita during the day.  So it corresponds to the fact  that if you will use B as one  bottle, one bottle exponent, in  minus one --.  The probability to English who  do not drink at all, wine will  be necessary three times. 

 So I suppose that the  probability to get the heart  disease decreases in this way,  while cirrhosis increases  exponentially.  How to evaluate the  correspondence.  I know in Russia, more or less,  if person drinks less than one  bottle of vodka per day, nothing  will happen.  (laughter)  No, indeed.  I know a lot of people who do  this.  So one half a liter of vodka  corresponds to three bottles of  wine, in alcohol content.  So I would evaluate this BC, as  three bottles of wine.  And then I just optimize.  I look and say that for me to  die from heart disease or  problems with liver, more or  less the same.  So I add these probabilities and  I add over the number of bottles  and I get the recommended number  of bottles per day. 

 This is more or less 9/16.  So it corresponds to 400 grams,  so two good glasses.  And this is, historically, the  level of red wine consumption in  Tuscany.  So Italians drink less than  French, only two glasses per  day.  And this corresponds to my  evaluation.  I still have five minutes, if  you are not tired I can  continue.  You have seen some commercials,  gentlemen in white tuxedos,  takes a large glass, rotates it,  and "Oh, this is a great wine."  And he is judging the quality  of wine basing on the wine  tears.  So what are wine tears?  Better to check it with stronger  alcoholic drinks.  For instance, with something  like Campari, which is colored.  You can see that it seems that  the mixture of water and  alcohol. .. 

 climbs itself up, and then falls  down in the form of flow.  It was investigated in 1992 and  was published in something like  this by Belgian scientists, and  they found that the secret is in  Marangoni Effect.  It is easy to understand.  We recognize that the suspension  results in the appearance of  forces tangential to the  surface.  If I have an inclined plane and  a mixture of water and alcohol,  the evaporation of water and  alcohol has different  velocities.  So depending on the depth I will  have the change in the tension  coefficient.  I will have gradient in tension  coefficient.  If tension forces develop forces  tangential, then it is evident  that the gradient in tension  will result in some radial force  which will pull my surface line  up.  Against gravitational forces.  But as usual, this system will  not be stable, you will have  some instability, which will  result in falling down in the  form of these flows. 

 And finally I finish with vodka.  Vodka usually has 40% proof.  So is it occasional, why?  So there are several reasons for  this.  And I will make the reference of  --, who many years ago,  explained this.  First of all is the effect that,  of course, this is a joke.  Nevertheless, there is a legend  that Evan the 3rd, in the 14th  century, introduced the monopoly  of the state for vodka  production.  Immediately, strange, but it  resulted in some political  instability in the country.  Why, because you see, the  barman, in those times, you buy  from him a glass of vodka, and  the quality is bad.  So he will be accused.  But if now the state is  responsible, the barman can add  water as much as he wants and  say, "It is the state. 

 Ask Czar, because he sent us bad  vodka."  So people were unhappy about  this, and they weren't happy  against the state.  So Evan had good advisors who  told him, it was necessary to  introduce some simple control.  And simple control is that the  vapor of vodka takes fire at  room temperature till 38 degree  of proof.  So 40, okay, 45, okay, but if  35, you cannot give fire to.  So the law was, if vapor of  vodka does not take fire, you  can beat barman up for this.  So problem was resolved.  Then as our story is again,  national, we know that water is  an -- liquid, so below four  centigrade, it increases in  volume with decrease of  temperature.  Alcohol is normal liquid.  So I just opened, and you can  see, that if you take a bottle  of water and put it in freezer,  nothing happens.  Vodka becomes gel, but it does  not break bottle. 

 If you do the same with water,  the bottle will break.  The reason is that the effective  coefficient of thermal extension  of vodka in the interval from  zero to -20, is almost zero.  And I opened the tables and did  this simple model.  I multiplied the coefficient for  water on 0.6,  coefficient for alcohol on 0.4,  and I got zero --.  So this is a medical fact.  Maybe I will say the last thing  about the physical control of  the quality of wine.  The so-called "sniff and --  method."  Which got the gold medal of  the consumer's, some  association.  So I will not recall who, but  some wine producers,  well-advertised wine producers,  bought cheap wine from others  and sold it under their name.  And it is possible to detect.  Why?  Because the heavy water, all  know what is heavy water. 

 Heavy water exists not only in  atomic bomb.  Heavy water exists everywhere.  With some distribution, and this  distribution, so it is maybe ten  minus ten, ten minus 11...  But they exist, and this  concentration strongly varies in  space.  Some maps of this distribution  exists.  So if you buy, let us say,  Bordeaux --, where you can check  that the concentration is five  on ten minus 11.  And you measure by means of  nuclear magnetic resonance,  making resonance on --.  You find that the concentration  in your wine is one more, so  something is not right.  And, more or less, you can say  wherefrom this wine arrived.  So this is my book about which  Maxim spoke, but is the version  of 2004, so I did not include  here, there is a coffee, but  there is no spaghetti story. 

 And thank you very much for your  patience, I finished but in two  minutes more.  Thank you.  (applause)